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AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE 


American  Grape  Culture 


WINE     MAKING. 


Peter     B.      M.ead. 


Illustrated  with  nearly  200  Sngraving$  dratvn  front  JVature. 


New- York  : 
Harper    &    Brothers,    Publishers,   Franklin    Square. 

1867. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  j'ear  1S6",  by 

HARPER   &.  BROTHERS, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New-Yorl£. 


JOHN  A.  GRAY  &  GREEN, 

PKISTERS, 

10  &  ;8  Jiicob  Street,  New-York. 


r 


R  E  F  A  C  E 


The  present  s'olums  has  been  prepared  in  compliance  with  the 
urgent  request  of  friends  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

We  conceive  that  an  elementary  work  on  the  vine,  to  possess 
the  highest  practical  value  for  the  amateur,  as  well  as  the  gar- 
dener and  vineyardist,  should  treat  of  all  the  facts  and  principles 
involved  in  the  subject,  laying  them  clearly  in  order  before  the 
student,  and  Unking  them  together  with  just  so  much  of  the 
theory  as  is  necessary  to  explain  lucidly  their  relation  to  each 
other,  and  unite  them  in  the  mind  of  the  student  in  one  harmo- 
nious and  systematic  whole.  This  is  what  we  have  aimed  to  accom- 
plish in  the  present  work,  indulging  in  no  theorizing  speculations, 
and  introducing  nothing  of  doubtful  verification.  "W^e  have  given 
a  simple  record  of  our  own  practice  and  experience,  stating  no 
fact  that  we  have  not  repeatedly  verified,  and  which  may  not  be 
repeated  by  others,  with  like  results.  We  have  striven  to  make  it 
a  safe  guide  to  all. 

Although  Grape  Culture,  and  especially  Wine-iNIaking,  are  yet 
in  their  infancy  in  this  country,  the  principles  and  conditions  upon 
which  success  depends  are  so  well  established  that,  if  we  walk  in 
the  full  light  of  the  knowledge  we  have,  we  need  tread  no  doubtful 
path.  Though  the  work  is  strictly  elementary,  we  have  by  no 
means  intended  to  make  it  in  any  degree  superficial,  and  have 
therefore  labored  to  leave  no  important  practical  question  unsolved ; 
indeed,  some  points,  that  have  heretofore  been  entirely  neglected, 
or  very  briefly  noticed,  are  here  treated  with  a  degree  of  minute- 
ness somewhat  commensurate  with  their  importance,  as  will  be 
seen,  among  others,  in  the  chapters  on  "  Varieties,"  "  Ripening," 
and  "  Taste." 

The  engravings  are  so  true  to  life,  and  so  admirably  executed, 
that  they  may  be  said,  in  some  sense,  to  present  a  treatise  in  them- 
selves, from  which  may  be  obtained  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
operations  to  be  performed,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  doing  them. 
Our  acknowledgments  are  made  elsewhere. 

February  5,  1867.  PETER  B.  MEAD. 


8S533 


ooi^te:^ts. 


CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

iNTRODUCTIOy, 5 

CHAPTER  II. 

Climate — Location — Exposure — Shelter, 11 

CHAPTER   III. 
The  Soil  and  its  Preparation — Manures, 20 

CHAPTER   IV. 
Laying  out  the  Vineyard, 2'J 

CHAPTER  V. 

Planting  the  Vineyard, 34 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Training — First  and  Second  Years,  56 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Training — Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years,  ....         78 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Training — Guyot — Guyot  Improved — Upright  Stock  with  alternate 
Spurs— The  Bow  System — The  Jura, 89 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Training — Thomery, .121 

CHAPTER  X. 

Training — Various  Forms, 144 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Description  of  Varieties,  159 


4  Contents. 

chapter  xii.  page 

Description  of  Varieties — Continued, 171 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

Taste,  as  applied  to  Fruits, 225 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

When  Grapes  are  Ripe,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .236 

CHAPTER   XV, 
Propagation, 249 

CHAPTER   XVI. 
Propagation — Continued, 211 

CHAPTER   XVn. 
Additional  Remarks  on  Planting, 295 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Replacing  and  Renewing  Spurs  and  Arms — Opposite  Arms — 
Length  of  Arms — Their  General  Management — Overcropping,      S05 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
Stakes  and  Trellises, 329 

CHAPTER   XX. 

Cultivation — "Winter  Management — Marketing — Tying— Growing 
Plants  between  the  Rows — How  to  keep  Grapes  in  Winter — 
Shelter  for  Protection  and  Ripening — Manures — Xon-manuring,     340 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
Diseases  and  Insects, 374 

PartSecond. 

CHAPTER   XXII. 
Plan  of  Quesnel — Modes  of  Bedding  Vines — Plan  of  Charmeux — 
Ground  Training — Training  without  Stakes— Training  on  Trees 
and  Trellis  combined — Ringing  the  Vine — A  Mildewed  Leaf — 
A  Rack  for  Stakes — "  Heeling  in," 399 

CHAPTER   XXIIL 

Wine  Making,  420 

Conclusion, 469 


AMERICAN  GRAPE  CULTURE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTEODUCTIOIT. 

There  are  few  material  interests  that  at  pres- 
ent claim  a  larger  share  of  public  attention  than 
the  culture  of  the  grape.  This  is  true,  whether 
we  regard  the  graj^e  as  something  that  ministers 
to  our  enjoyments,  or  fills  our  pockets  with  gold. 
We  have  thought,  therefore,  that  an  elementary- 
work  on  the  grape,  plain  and  practical,  would 
now  possess  a  certain  degree  of  interest,  and  be 
of  some  value  to  the  public.  It  would  not  be 
possible,  of  com^se,  to  exhaust  such  a  subject  in 
an  elementary  work ;  we  must  necessarily  treat 
it  with  much  brevity,  but  we  shall  endeavor  to 
present  such  a  resume  of  the  details  and  prin- 
ciples of  grape  culture  as  will  enable  any  intelli- 
gent 23erson  to  grow  good  grapes,  and  even  make 
good  wine.  The  subject,  indeed,  is  worthy  of 
profound   study  for  the  sake  of  its  own  pure 


D.   H.   HILL   LIBRARY 
North  Carolina  State  College 


6  American  Grape  Culture. 

and  simple  pleasures.  It  may  at  first  seem  a 
little  dry  in  its  details  to  the  uninformed ;  but 
in  its  fruition  it  possesses  a  degree  of  fascina- 
tion wliicli  can  be  claimed  for  no  otlier  culture. 
Besides  what  may  be  termed  its  intellectual 
pleasures,  it  lias  an  interest  of  a  more  material 
kind,  whicli  will  address  itself  not  only  to 
those  who  wish  to  grow  their  own  grapes  and 
drink  their  own  wine,  but  more  especially  to 
that  large  class  who  look  at  the  subject  from 
the  stand-point  of  profit. 

We  do  not  propose  to  indulge  in  figures, 
whether  of  arithmetic  or  the  imagination ;  but 
we  may  say  that  grape  culture  is  fast  working 
itself  up  to  the  first  position  among  the  pro- 
ductive interests  of  the  country.  The  capital 
invested  in  it  may  abeady  be  counted  by  mil- 
lions; and  a  time  will  come  when  the  pro- 
ducts of  grape  culture  will  be  found  among 
the  exports  of  the  country.  It  is  not  claimed 
that  we  shall  make  better  vsdnes  than  those  of 
Europe ;  but  we  can  and  shall  make  them 
purer  than  most  of  those  sent  to  us ;  and  jpure 
wines  will  always  find  a  good  market  and  high 
prices  wherever  wines  are  used.  Besides,  our 
best  wines  will  possess  a  fruity  bouquet  natu- 
ral to  but  few  of  the  wines  of  Europe  ;    a  bou- 


Inteoductiojst.  7 

quet  that  grows  upon  tlie  taste,  and  wliicli  will 
make  our  wines   sought  after   by  all  connois- 
seurs.    It  is  safe,  then,  to  say  that  the  products 
of  grape  cultm-e  will  at  no  distant  day  have 
an  important  commercial  value,  as  respects  our 
foreign  trade.     They  already  have  a  very  con- 
siderable value  in  our  internal  trade ;  for,  not 
to  speak  of  the  vast  quantities  of  grapes  that 
are  consumed  for  the  table,  it  is  an  indisputable 
fact  that  American  wines,  some  of  them  con- 
fessedly impui^e  and  of  inferior  quality,  are  to- 
day selling  in  New- York  for  higher  prices  than 
imported  wines  of  better  quality.     This  is  an 
anomaly,  however,  which  must  soon  necessarily 
disappear.      The   purchasers  of  these   inferior 
wines  are  not  found  among  those  who  know  what 
a  really  pure  and  good  wine  is ;  and  there  are 
unmistakable  indications  that  the  public  taste  is 
happily  being  educated  up  to  that  point  where 
pure  and  excellent  wines  will  be  the  rule,  and 
impure  and  faulty  ones  the  exception.     There 
we  may  safely  leave  the  subject. 

Fears  are  sometimes  expressed  that  grape 
culture  will  soon  be  carried  to  excess ;  that  the 
market  will  be  overstocked,  and  prices,  conse- 
quently, cease  to  be  remunerative.  More  tlian 
fifteen  years  ago  we  heard  the  same  fears  ex- 


8  American  Grape  Culture. 

pressed  in  very  much  the  same  terms ;  and  to- 
day we  have  a  sufficient  answer  in  the  fact,  that 
graj^es  are  now  selling  for  three  and  four  times 
as  much  as  they  did  fifteen  years  ago.  This  is 
readily  accounted  for  in  the "  simple  fact,  that 
the  demand  has  kept  steadily  in  advance  of  the 
supply,  notwithstanding  the  largely  increased 
area  of  cultivation.  A  little  reflection  "vvdll  con- 
vince the  most  obdurate  of  doubters  that  this 
must  continue  to  be  the  case  for  many  years  to 
come.  Let  us  for  a  moment  look  at  some  plain 
facts,  within  the  reach  and  comprehension  of 
any  common-sense  man.  Taking  the  last  cen- 
sus tables  as  a  basis,  we  may  safely  assume  that 
our  population  A\dll  increase  for  the  next  hun- 
dred years  at  the  rate  of  forty  per  cent  per 
decade.  Let  us  then  take  into  consideration 
the  fact,  that  the  taste  for  grapes  and  other 
good  fruits  is  ra2:>idly  spreading  among  all  class- 
es of  the  people,  so  that  fruit  consumers  here- 
after will  form  a  relatively  larger  proportion 
of  the  community  than  heretofore.  If  we  put 
these  two  facts  together,  we  may  even  take  as 
a  standard  the  rapid  increase  in  grape  culture 
which  has  been  witnessed  during  the  past  five 
years,  and  the  conclusion  will  still  be  unavoid- 
able, that  the  demand  will  be  far  in  advance 


Introduction. 


of  the  supply :  the  mouths  will  multiply  faster 
thau  they  can  be  filled.  This  must  be  the  case, 
however  large  the  number  of  propagators  may 
be,  or  however  vast  their  facilities  for  multiply- 
ing the  vine.  The  man  has  yet  to  be  born  who 
will  be  able  to  purchase  our  best  native  grapes 
for  less  than  fifteen  cents  a  pound.  We  know 
that  grapes  can  be  profitably  grown  for  much 
less  than  ten. 

From  what  has  been  said,  we  are  justified  in 
concluding  that  grape  culture  is  rich  in  the  ele- 
ments of  pleasure   and   profit.     There   is  one 
other  point  that  may  be  glanced  at  before  pro- 
ceedino-  to  the  more  immediate  object  of  this 
work.     A  good  deal  has  been  said,  at  times, 
al)out  the  morality  of  the  subject ;  the  wicked- 
ness of  growing  grapes  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ino-  wine.     We  do  not  propose  to  discuss  this 
point.     The  limits  prescribed  to  this  book  will 
not  permit  it ;  besides,  it  is  really  not  necessary 
in  this  connection.     We  may  remark,  however, 
that  our  efforts  to  benefit  mankind  will  be  suc- 
cessful just  in  proportion  asw^e  deal  with  them 
as  they  are,  and  not  as  we  would  have  them. 
We  usually  fail  because  we  begin  by  supposing 
men   to   be  what  we   only  propose   to   make 
them  :  an  inversion  which  defeats  our  purpose. 


10  American  Geape  Culture. 

Men  will  drink  wine  of  some  kind,  reason  as 
we  may.  Accept  tlie  fact,  and  strive  to  teacli 
them  to  drink  only  tliat  wliicli  is  pm^e,  and  thus 
prepare  them  for  the  next  higher  stej)  in  moral 
progress,  the  drinking  of  no  wine  at  all,  if  that 
be  necessary,  which  some  will  doubt.  Wine 
is  not  the  only  blessing  that  is  abused ;  but  it 
can  hardly  be  said  that  pm^e  wine  makes 
drunkards.  The  wine  countries  of  Europe 
prove  quite  the  contrary.  We  have  no  hesi- 
tation in  recoi'ding  our  conviction,  that  grape 
culture  may  be  made  the  handmaiden  of  the 
temperance  cause. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CLIMATE LOCATIOK ^EXPOSUEE SHELTEE. 

Is  our  Climate  adapted  to  the  Vine? — We 
do  not  propose  in  this  little  volume  to  give  a 
botanical  description  of  the  grape  vine.  Tliose 
who  are  in  present  need  of  that  knowledge 
may  consult  Gray's  Botany,  or  some  other  with- 
in their  reach.  The  question,  however,  natur- 
ally arises  at  the  start,  whether  our  climate  is 
adapted  to  the  successful  growth  of  the  vine. 
This  question,  often  asked,  may  be  answered  by 
pointing  to  the  many  successful  vineyards  scat- 
tered over  the  country.  The  vine,  in  fact,  is  in- 
digenous to  almost  every  part  of  the  American 
continent.  As  it  is  the  improved  forms  of  our 
native  kinds  that  we  depend  upon,  there  ought 
to  be  no  doubt  of  the  compatibility  of  our 
climate  with  success.  Foreig-n  varieties  have 
been  tried,  and  failed.  Seedlings  of  the  native 
vines  have  been  grown  with  eminent  success. 


12  American  Geape  Culture. 

Their  relative  merits  will   be  discussed  here- 
after. 

Location. — Having  determined  upon  plant- 
ing a  vineyard,  the  first  point  to  engage  our  at- 
tention will  be  the  selection  of  a  proper  loca- 
tion. We  attach  more  importance  to  this  than 
some  others  do.  It  is  said  that  we  need  not 
be  particular  on  this  point,  since  the  vine  is 
found  growing  wild  almost  every  where,  even  in 
swamps.  This  is  true ;  but  the  fruit  produced 
upon  vines  growing  in  wet  places  is  very  ill-fla- 
vored ;  redolent,  indeed,  of  that  peculiar  odor 
popularly  called  "  foxy ;"  the  skin  is  thick, 
tough,  and  acrid,  and  the  flesh  hard  and  indi- 
gestible. If  the  same  vine  be  removed  to  dry 
soil,  and  cultivated,  these  offensive  characteris- 
tics become  in  a  small  degree  mitigated ;  sliow- 
ing  conclusively  the  ameliorating  influence  of 
culture  and  position.  The  fruit  even  of  the 
cultivated  vine  is  more  or  less  affected  by  what 
is  called  a  "  wet  season  :"  it  is  found  to  lose  a 
portion  of  its  tenderness,  and  to  deteriorate  in 
flavor.  These,  and  other  facts,  must  necessarily 
lead  us  to  attach  much  importance  to  the  selec- 
tion of  a  location  that  is  naturally  dry ;  and 
the  experience  of  the  great  mass  of  cultivators 


LOCATIOX.  13 

will  be  found  to  agree  witli  this.  An  opposite 
opinion  will  be  found  to  prevail  only  among 
those  whose  experience  in  the  vineyard  is  of  a 
limited  nature.  If  circumstances  should  com- 
pel the  selection  of  a  location  not  naturally 
dry,  then  recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial 
drainage,  and  this  should  be  of  the  most  thor- 
ough kind.  We  should  give  a  decided  prefer- 
ence to  tile  drain.  If  tile  can  not  be  readily 
procured,  then  we  must  use  stone ;  and  these 
should  be  so  well  laid  in  the  bottom  as  to  pre- 
vent the  possibility  of  their  being  disturbed  or 
clogged  up  by  the  adjacent  soil.  The  location 
must  not  only  be  dry,  but  the  grade  must  he 
sucli  that  no  surface  water  can  remain  on  it  at 
any  season  of  the  year.  Surface  water,  espe- 
cially in  the  winter,  is  a  prevalent  cause  of 
the  winter-killing  of  vines,  both  old  and  young, 
but  particularly  the  latter. 

In  selecting  a  site  for  a  vineyard,  low  grounds 
should,  if  possible,  be  avoided.  There  are  many 
objections  to  them,  chief  among  which  are 
these :  they  are  suljject  to  heavy  cold  fogs  and 
vapors,  and  strong  currents  of  cold  air;  they 
are  more  or  less  damp  in  spring  and  fall,  and 
liable  to  early  and  late  frosts ;  all  of  which  are 
great  impediments  to  the  successful  culture  of 


14  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  grape.  Hillsides  have  always  been  favor- 
ite spots  for  the  grape;  cultivators  concede 
their  peculiar  fitness  with  great  unanimity. 
Declivities,  gentle  slopes,  in  short,  almost  any 
elevated  spot  free  from  dampness,  may  be  se- 
lected as  a  suitable  place  for  a  vineyard.  But 
the  best  of  all  places  is,  undoubtedly,  some  ele- 
vated spot  bordered  by  a  large  body  of  water. 
Hence  the  fewer  casualties,  the  greater  certain- 
ty of  the  crop,  and  the  superior  quality  of  the 
fruit  grown  in  such  localities  as  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Lakes.  There  are  several  reasons 
for  this,  the  chief  being  the  ameliorating  influ- 
ence exercised  by  the  water.  The  temperature 
of  the  surrounding  air  is  very  even ;  sudden 
changes  being  comparatively  rare,  or  at  least 
shorn  of  most  of  their  ill  effects.  Early  and 
late  frosts  are  not  of  such  frequent  occurrence, 
and  the  grooving  season  is  thus  prolonged 
These  facts  will  account  for  individual  cases  of 
failure  or  success,  which  seem  at  first  to  set  at 
naught  all  our  efforts  to  refer  them  to  any  par- 
ticular cause ;  though  it  can  not  be  denied  that 
hidden  causes  are  often  at  work,  the  results  of 
which  may  be  seen,  but  can  not  well  be  over- 
come. The  cause  of  disease  being  unknown, 
the  application  of  remedies  becomes  altogether 


Exposure.  15 

a  matter  of  cliance :  we  are  just  as  apt  to  kill 
as  cure. 

In  selecting  a  site  for  a  vineyard,  wherein  no 
inconsiderable  capital  must  necessarily  be  em- 
ployed, prudence  would  suggest  that  we  seek 
the  advice  of  some  experienced  friend,  whose 
practiced  eye  would  quickly  detect  most  of  the 
conditions  which  are  favorable  or  unfavorable 
to  the  successful  growth  of  the  vine.  We 
have  received  many  letters,  asking  whether 
some  particular  spot  is  adapted  to  the  grape, 
to  which  we  have  but  one  reply:  the  con- 
ditions can  only  be  safely  determined  on  the 
spot ;  and  it  should  not  be  concealed,  that  in 
some  cases,  even  where  the  best  judgment  has 
been  exercised,  hidden  local  causes  will  operate 
to  defeat  in  a  measure  om*  purpose. 

Exposure. — Having  thus  briefly  treated  of 
the  location,  we  pass  next  to  the  subject  of  ex- 
po-sure, by  which  is  meant  the  aspect  which  the 
vineyard  should  have  in  reference  to  the  points 
of  the  compass.  On  this  point  some  diversity 
of  opinion  exists  among  practical  men,  owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  good  grapes  have 
been  grown  in  various  exposures.  There  is  a 
pretty  general  agreement,  however,  that  a  south- 


16  American  Grape  Culture. 

ern  exposure  is  best,  some  claiming  a  preemi- 
nence for  one  facing  southeast,  and  others  again, 
but  fewer  in  number,  one  looking  to  the  south- 
west. Our  o"s^Ti  preference,  all  things  consider- 
ed, is  for  one  facing  the  southeast.  But,  after 
all,  the  exposure  must,  in  some  degree,  be  de- 
termined by  the  local  surroundings.  A  yme- 
yard  may  be  safely  planted  with  an  exposm'e 
ranging  any  where  from  east  to  south  and  west ; 
but  we  should  hesitate  to  plant  one  looking 
due  north,  if  we  proposed  to  make  wine.  We 
might,  under  certain  circumstances,  plant  one 
thus  situated,  and  exj)ect  to  get  some  good 
grapes  for  tlie  table,  but  ripening  a  few  days 
later  than  those  having  a  southern  exposure. 

The  objects  to  be  attained  by  exposure  con- 
sist chiefly  in  the  admission  to  the  soil  and 
vines  of  a  due  proportion  of  the  sun's  vivifying 
rays,  and  shelter  from  prevailing  cold  winds ; 
and  here,  again,  we  must  bring  to  our  aid  the 
exercise  of  a  discerning  judgment. 

Shelter. — This  is  so  intimately  connected  with 
location  and  exposure,  that  we  shall  treat  of  it 
here.  It  is  a  subject  of  very  great  importance 
in  its  bearino-s  on  the  well-beino'  of  the  vine- 
yard,  and  one  to  which,  strangely  enough,  vine- 


Shelter.  17 

yarclists  liave  liitlierto  given  very  little  attention. 
We  know  of  vineyards  that  only  require  ap- 
propriate shelter  to  make  them  yield  liiglily  re- 
munerative returns.  There  are  probably  many 
such  all  over  the  country,  the  owners  of  which 
are  mournino-  over  then-  small  success,  while 
their  vines  are  a  prey  to  early  and  late  frosts, 
mildew,  temj)ests,  and  other  casualties,  which 
could  l)e  measural)ly  controlled  by  proper  shel- 
ter. The  object  of  shelter  is  to  protect  the  vine- 
yard from  high  and  cold  winds,  and  incidental- 
ly to  secure  freedom  from  unseasonable  frosts, 
mildew,  and  analogous  casualties.  The  atmos- 
phere that  surrounds  the  vineyard  should 
be  warm,  and  not  liable  to  sudden  changes. 
The  heat  and  moisture  that  exhale  from  the 
earth  should  not  be  liable  to  be  blown  sudden- 
ly away.  The  leaves  should  not  be  torn  and 
twisted  by  strong  winds.  With  all  these,  we 
should  avoid  destroying  the  life  of  the  air : 
there  should  be  gentle  breezes  passing  around 
and  between  the  plants,  the  leaves,  and  the 
fruit.  Shut  out  rude  Boreas,  but  let  the 
Zephyrs  wanton  as  they  will. 

These  leading  objects  can  be  measurably  at- 
tained by  affording  proper  shelter.  A  board 
fence  will  often  answer  a  good  purpose,  and  is 

2 


18  American  Grape  Culture. 

always  better  than  no  shelter  at  all ;  for  simple 
as  it  may  seem,  tlie  influence  of  such  a  fence  is 
felt  for  several  hundred  feet.  In  some  cases  suffi- 
cient shelter  may  be  found  in  the  natural  wood 
surrounding  the  selected  site;  but  in  others,  and 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  the  shelter  by  23lanting  trees.  Of  de- 
ciduous trees,  we  should  select  the  birch  or 
the  maple.  If  the  ground  could  be  spared,  we 
should  plant  two  rows  of  trees,  though  one  row 
will  answer  the  purpose  very  well.  The  birch 
we  should  plant  three  feet  apart  each  way ;  the 
maple,  four  feet  apart.  Of  evergreen  trees,  we 
should  select  the  Norway  spruce,  and  plant 
four  feet  a23art.  The  evergreens  will  make  much 
the  best  shelter.  The  sheltering  belt  should  be 
so  arranged  as  to  afford  protection  against  prev- 
alent winds,  and  these,  in  most  cases,  proceed 
from  the  northeast,  north,  and  northwest ;  some- 
times from  some  j)oint  south.  Wherever  they 
come  from,  let  them  be  shut  off  by  belts  or 
clumps  of  trees. 

A  caution  may  be  added,  not  to  plant  a  belt 
or  clump  of  trees  in  too  close  proximity  to  the 
vines.  The  roots  of  the  trees  will  soon  find 
their  way  among  the  vines,  and  damage  them 
greatly.     We    have   seen   instances  where   at- 


Shelter.  19 

tempts  were  made  to  check  this  evil  by  opening 
trenches  and  cutting  off  the  roots;  but  the 
check  proved  to  be  only  temporary.  If  large 
trees  surround  the  vineyard  closely,  ventilation 
is  materially  interfered  w^ith.  There  are  other 
evils  which  we  can  not  allude  to  here.  The 
distance  at  which  clumps  and  sheltering  belts 
should  be  placed  may  be  determined  by  the 
kind  of  trees  and  the  distances  at  which  they 
are  planted  aj)art.  The  proper  distance  for 
belts  and  clumps  is  about  fifty  feet  from  the 
vines.  A  hedge  proper  of  Norway  spruce, 
planted  for  a  height  of  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  may 
be  placed  as  near  as  twenty-five  feet ;  but  forty 
would  be  better,  with  the  height  of  the  hedge 
increased  to  twenty  feet. 

We  must  not  be  imderstood  as  saying  that 
shelter  is  indispensable  to  all  localities ;  we 
know  of  vineyards  that  yearly  produce  the  best 
results  that  have  no  shelter ;  but,  notwithstand- 
ing this,  there  are  many  places  which,  owing  to 
their  geographical  position,  are  liable  to  sudden 
chan2:es  and  violent  winds ;  and  for  all  such, 
protection  of  some  kind  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SOIL,  AND  ITS  PEEPAEATIOIT ^ItlANURES. 

Soil. — The  soil  may  next  occiij)y  our  atten- 
tion. What  is  the  best  soil  for  the  grape? 
This  question  has  been  variously  answered. 
Those  who  live  in  a  district  where  clay 
abounds  say  that  a  clayey  soil  is  best ;  while 
those  who  live  where  sand  prevails  will  tell 
you  that  a  sandy  soil  is  best,  and  so  on.  The 
solution  of  these  answers  may  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  good  grapes  are  grown  in  both 
kinds  of  soil.  Our  own  experience,  and  a 
pretty  extended  observation  among  vineyards, 
lead  us  to  give  preference  to  sandy  or  gravelly 
loams.  It  has  been  said  that  any  soil  that  will 
grow  good  corn  will  grow  good  grapes.  We 
have  no  doubt  of  the  truthfulness  of  the  re- 
mark; and  we  should  not  hesitate  to  plant  a 
vineyard  upon  such  a  soil,  if  favorably  located. 
But  we  may  go  further,  and   say   that   good 


The  Soil,  and  Its  Pkeparation.  21 

grapes  may  be  grown  where  good  corn  can  not. 
Some  of  the  best  vineyards  about  New- York 
are  planted  in  light  sandy  soils,  to  which  muck 
has  been  added  with  a  more  or  less  liberal 
hand.  There  are  many  localities  on  Long 
Island  and  in  New-Jersey,  where  light  sands 
j)revail,  that  could  be  converted  into  pro- 
ductive vineyards  at  a  comparatively  small  ex- 
pense. We  have  never  seen  better  grapes  than 
have  been  grown  on  similar  soils  j)roperly 
treated.  The  vine  has  such  a  wonderful  power 
of  adaptability  that  the  soil,  whether  light  or 
heavy,  becomes  almost  a  matter  of  secondary 
importance. 

Preparation. — Not  so,  however,  its  prepara- 
tion for  the  reception  of  the  plants.  This 
should  be  most  thoroughly  done.  In  planting 
a  vineyard,  we  are  doing  a  work  that  is  expect- 
ed to  last  for  generations ;  hence,  every  thing 
connected  with  it  should  be  done  in  a  manner 
to  insure  good  and  permanent  results.  Some 
soils  will  need  more  thorough  preparation  than 
others  ;  but  all  will  need  more  or  less. 

It  may,  or  may  not  be,  that  some  have  recom- 
mended a  more  thorough  and  expensive  mode 
of  2^reparation  than  the  case   calls  for.     We 


22  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

leave  each  one  at  liberty  to  judge  for  himself, 
with  the  simple  remark,  that  money  spent  in  a 
judicious  preparation  of  the  soil  is  capital  well 
invested,  which  is  certain  to  return  a  good 
interest.  A  vineyard  well  prepared  will  pay 
better  than  one  not  so  prepared :  that  may  be 
received  as  an  axiom  in  vineyard  culture. 

There  are  three  principal  methods  of  j^repar- 
ing  the  soil  for  a  vineyard :  t/i^encliing^  Wencli 
-plowing^  and  suhsoiling.  The  first,  except  for 
small  vineyards,  and  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances, may  be  too  expensive  an  operation  for 
general  adoption :  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the 
garden.  The  second  and  third  are  exceedingly 
useful,  and  may  be  adopted  wherever  a  plow 
can  be  run.  We  propose  to  give  a  brief  de- 
scription of  each  of  the  three  methods  above 
named. 

Trenching  is  done  with  the  spade;  It  con- 
sists in  first  removing  the  earth  from  a  trench 
to  the  depth  that  it  is  proposed  to  work  the 
soil,  the  trench  to  be  of  any  convenient  width, 
(say  two  feet  wide,)  and  as  long  as  the  plot  of 
ground  to  be  trenched.  To  be  a  little  precise, 
we  will  suppose  the  soil  is  to  be  trenched  to  the 
usual  depth  of  two  feet :  the  trench  will  then 


The  Soil,  and  Its  Preparation.  23 

be  two  feet  deep.  With  a  line,  mark  off  a 
slice  two  feet  wide  immediately  adjoining  the 
open  trench ;  throw  one  foot  of  the  top  soil  of 
this  slice  into  the  bottom  of  the  open  trench, 
and  on  the  top  of  this  throw  the  remaining  foot 
of  bottom  soil.  By  this  operation  the  trench 
has  been  filled,  and  the  order  of  the  soils  re- 
versed ;  the  best,  or  surface  soil,  being  at  the 
bottom  of  the  trench,  and  the  poorest,  or  sub- 
soil, on  the  top.  We  have  at  the  same  time 
opened  a  new  trench.  This  is  to  be  filled  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  first,  and  the  operation 
repeated  until  the  whole  plot  has  been  trenched. 
The  last  trench  is  to  be  filled  mth  the  soil  that 
was  removed  from  the  first.  If  the  plot  of 
ground  is  large,  some  labor  -will  be  saved  by 
making  the  trenches  half  the  width  of  the 
plot,  going  down  on  one  side  and  returning  on 
the  other.  The  last  trench  will  then  be  on  a 
line  with  the  first,  and  there  will  be  but  little 
carting  needed  to  fill  it.  This  is  a  brief  de- 
scription of  trenching,  but  we  liope  sufficiently 
plain  to  be  understood.  It  will  be  observed 
that  our  ojDeration  has  buried  the  good  soil, 
and  brought  the  poor  or  subsoil  to  the  surface, 
which  must  be  enriched  with  muck,  manure,  or 
good  surface  soil  from  some  other  place,  and  we 


24  American  Grape  Culture. 

sliall  have  a  soil  that  will  bring  any  kind  of 
plants  to  their  highest  state  of  excellence. 

Trench  jjilowing  is  much  less  expensive  than 
spade  trenching,  and  but  little  inferior  to  it, 
when  well  done,  putting  the  ground  in  fine 
condition  for  growing  grapes  as  well  as  other 
crops.  In  trench  plowing,  oxen  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  horses,  their  draught  being  steadier  as 
well  as  more  powerful.  There  is  no  plow  in 
use  at  present  specially  adapted  to  this  work, 
and  we  must  therefore  take  the  best  we  can 
get.  The  cylinder  plow,  on  account  of  its  easy 
draught,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best.  Two 
plows  and  two  yokes  of  oxen  are  used;  the 
work  will  be  better  done,  however,  if  two 
yokes  of  oxen  are  attached  to  the  second  or 
following  plow.  The  fii'st  plow  o^oens  a  furrow 
as  deep  as  the  j)low  can  be  driven.  The  second 
plow  follows  immediately  in  the  same  furrow, 
and  deepens  it  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  team. 
There  must  be  no  balks  or  jumps;  the  plow 
must  be  plunged  in  to  the  beam,  and  kept  there. 
Men  with  spades  should  follow  the  second  plow, 
to  remove  the  stones,  and  keep  the  furrow  open. 
The  lot  may  be  plowed  round,  or  in  lands ;  but 
we  prefer  to  return  without  a  furrow,  so  that 


The  Soil,  and  Its  Preparation.  25 

the  furrows  may  all  be  laid  one  way ;  tlie  work 
will  be  more  than  enough  better  to  pay"  for  the 
additional  labor.  The  work  will  be  easier  at 
the  start,  if  both  plows  are  run  a  second  time 
in  the  first  furrow,  and  the  soil  thrown  out  with 
spades ;  the  plows  will  move  easier  in  the  sub- 
sequent furrows,  as  there  will  be  less  resistance 
to  overcome.  A  common  mistake  in  trench 
plowing,  (and  in  all  plowing,  in  fact,)  is  cutting 
the  furrow  slice  too  wide.  It  is  true,  that  by 
cutting  the  furrow  slice  twelve  inches  wide  we 
can  get  over  the  ground  about  twice  as  fast  as 
when  it  is  cut  six  inches  wide  ;  but  in  the  lat- 
ter case  the  work  is  more  than  twice  as  well 
done ;  and  since  we  can  not  do  it  but  once,  let 
us  do  it  well.  Let  the  furrow  slices,  therefore, 
be  narrow,  and  the  furrows  deep.  The  work 
will  be  all  the  better  if  the  lot  is  cross-plowed 
in  the  same  way.  The  plowing  may  be  repeat- 
ed with  advantage  as  many  times  as  can  be 
afforded.  This  would  very  well  meet  our  idea 
of  tJiorough  preparation  Avith  the  plow.  The 
manures  used  may  be  spread  on  the  surface, 
and  plowed  in.  The  effect  of  trench  j)lowing 
is  not  only  to  deepen  tlie  soil,  but  to  mix  the 
surface  soil  and  subsoil  together  pretty 
thoroughly,  and  thus  aftbrd  a  deeper  bed  for 


D.   H,    HILL   LIBRARY 
North  Carolina  State  College 


26  American  Grape  Culture. 

tlie  roots  of  plants  to  work  in:  but  among 
its  most  important  results  is  tLe  protection  it 
affords  against  the  ill  effects  of  sudden  changes 
of  the  weather,  drought  and  wetness,  heat  and 
cold,  etc. 

Subsoiling  will  next  be  described.  This,  for 
the  vineyard,  is  the  least  thorough  of  the  three 
methods  named.  It  is  but  little,  if  any,  less 
costly  than  trench  j^lowing,  and  should  not, 
therefore,  except  for  very  good  reasons,  super- 
sede it.  The  process  of  subsoiling  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  trench  plowing.  Two  plows 
are  used,  the  common  ]3low  and  the  subsoil 
plow,  which  is  simply  a  foot-piece  in  some 
wedge-shaped  form,  attached  to  a  narrow  up- 
right shank.  Of  subsoil  plows,  there  are 
only  two  or  three  in  use,  either  of  which  will 
answer  the  puri^ose  well  enough  if  the  furrow 
.  slices  are  made  narrow.  Mapes's  has  the  light- 
est draught.  In  subsoiling,  the  furrow  is  open- 
ed with  the  common  plow;  the  subsoil  plow 
follows  in  the  same  furrow,  and  should  be  run 
up  to  the  beam  to  make  good  work.  The  lot 
may  be  plowed  round  or  in  lands;  sloping 
ground,  however,  should  be  plowed  up  and 
down  the  slope  when  the  soil  is  at  all  heavy ; 


Manuees.  27 

for  the  subsoil  plow,  in  sucli  soils,  will  leave  an 
opening  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  furrow,  whicli 
will  for  a  time  serve  the  purpose  of  a  drain. 
There  is  this  marked  difference  between  sub- 
soiling  and  trench  plowing:  the  operation  of 
the  first  is  confined  chiefly  to  loosening  the  sub- 
soil, while  the  latter  not  only  loosens  the  sub- 
soil, but  mixes  it  with  the  upper  or  surface 
soil.  The  value  of  trenching,  trench  plowing, 
and  subsoiling,  may  be  taken  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  named ;  and  it  is  only  the  ex- 
pense of  the  first  which  should  prevent  its  gen- 
eral adoption  for  fruit  culture. 

Manures. — ^A  few  brief  remarks  may  here  be 
added  on  the  subject  of  manures.  The  vine  is 
said  to  be  a  gross  feeder.  To  some  extent  this 
is  true ;  yet  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
excessive  application  of  gross  manures  is  injuri- 
ous to  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  and  enfeebling 
to  the  vine,  unfitting  it,  indeed,  to  withstand 
the  chanGfins:  rig;ors  of  our  variable  climate. 
All  kinds  of  manures  are  said  to  be  good  for 
the  vine,  nothing  coming  amiss.  If  they  are 
thoroughly  decomposed,  and  have  lost  their 
grossness  and  unhealthful  qualities,  which 
produce   distended  rather  than   solid  growth, 


28  American  Geape  Cultuee. 

we  shall  not  object.  Coarse,  unfermented  ma- 
nures sliould  not  he  applied  to  the  vineyard, 
except  when  they  can  be  thoroughly  and 
evenly  mixed  with  and  through  the  soil. 
On  the  whole,  we  know  of  nothing  so  good 
as  old,  well-decayed  barnyard  manure,  com- 
posted with  muck.  This,  thoroughly  worked 
in  and  through  the  soil  at  the  beginning  to  the 
depth  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches,  will  leave 
little  or  nothing  more  to  be  desired.  Ashes, 
bones,  lime,  poudrette,  etc.,  have  their  value,  but 
should  generally  be  applied  as  a  top  dressing, 
though  they  may  all  be  likewise  mixed  with 
the  compost  last  named.  In  preparing  a  vine- 
yard, the  object  to  be  aimed  at  is  a  thoroughly 
good,  but  not  excessively  rich,  soil  of  consider- 
able depth.  Depth,  indeed,  is  of  more  import- 
ance than  great  richness,  though  a  pretty  good 
degree  of  fertility  may  be  considered  indispens- 
able for  a  productive  vineyard.  Where  it  can 
be  done,  a  good  plan  is  to  place  the  materials 
of  the  compost  heap  in  layers,  and  let  them 
remain  so  for  several  weeks;  then  turn  and 
mix  them  thoroughly,  and  repeat  the  operation 
every  week  or  so  till  the  compost  is  wanted  for 
use.  The  oftener  it  is  tm-ned,  the  better  it  will 
be. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LAYING    OUT   THE   VINEYARD. 


IjL 


"jmjing  out  the  Vineyard.— ^omethmg  may 
now  be  added,  as  to  tlie  best  manner  of  laying 
out  a  vineyard.  The  directions  wliicli  the  rows 
should  take  is  a  matter  of  some  importance,  for 
we  have  no  doubt  that  the  thrift  of  the  vines  is 
sometimes  more  or  less  affected  by  it.  Vine- 
yardists  are  not  quite  agreed  as  to  whether  the 
rows  should  run  east  and  west,  or  north  and 
south.  'Local  causes,  no  doubt,  operate  in  some 
cases  to  affect  the  results  ;  yet  we  believe  the 
weight  of  authority  preponderates  in  favor  of 
running  the  rows  east  and  west ;  and  this  agrees 
with  our  own  most  matured  experience.  It  is 
not  to  be  denied,  however,  that  good  grapes  have 
been  grown  both  ways,  which  will  sufficiently  ac- 
count for  any  diversity  of  opinion.  It  must  not 
be  supposed,  however,  that  there  is  really  not, 
under  given  circumstances,  some  one  way  better 


30  Americajst  Grape  Culture. 

tlian  another,  tlioiigli  we  may  not  "be  able  to 
state  it  in  general  terms.  If  circumstances  per- 
mitted, we  should  by  all  means  arrange  the 
rows  so  that  the  morning  sun  should  have  free 
access  to  the  vines :  the  nearer  this  point  can 
be  attained,  the  better.  In  the  majority  of 
cases,  this  point  can  be  secured  by  running  the 
rows  more  or  less  nearly  east  and  west.  On 
hill  sides  there  is  a  necessity,  arising  from  the 
situation,  that  the  rows  should  run  more  or  less 
nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  slope  of  the  hill. 
"  Let  every  thing  be  well  ordered "  will  ap- 
ply to  the  vineyard,  even  in  matters  not  affect- 
ing the  health  of  the  vine  or  the  quality  of  its 
fruit.  A  man's  nature  and  habits  may  be  seen 
in  the  smallest  matters  of  every  day  life ;  a  man 
of  refinement  and  taste  may  be  as  readily  recog. 
nized  by  the  arrangement  of  his  trees  and  vines 
as  by  the  neatness  of  his  dress  or  the  orderly 
disposition  of  the  contents  of  his  library  or 
parlor.  It  may  not  enhance  the  value,  but  it 
clearly  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  vineyard,  to 
have  the  vines  planted  in  an  orderly  manner. 
Some  find  a  difficulty  in  getting  their  rows  at 
right  angles ;  ])ut  there  are  two  or  three  simple 
rules  for  doing  this,  which  can  be  readily  under- 
stood by  any  body.     There  ought  to  be  no  diffi- 


Laying  Out  the  Vineyard.  31 

culty  in  getting  one  straight  line  to  begin  with. 
This  ascertained,  stretch  a  string  along  this  line, 
and  let  it  project  about  eight  feet  beyond  the 
point  or  corner  where  it  is  proposed  to  form  the 
right  angle.  See  Fig.  1.  Drive  a  stake  at  this 
corner,  «,  and  eight  feet  from  it,  on  both  sides, 
drive  two  other  stakes,  <?,  d.  With  these  two 
stakes  as  centers,  take  a  string  ten  or  more  feet 
long,  and  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle;  a  line 
drawn  through  the  point,  Z»,  where  the  two  arcs 
meet,  will  be  a  right-an- 
gled line.  Tie  a  loop  at 
the  end  of  a  string,  place 
it  over  the  middle  stake, 
a,  and  stretch  the  strins; 


so  that  it  passes  directly  Kg.  i. 

over  the  point,  Z>,  where  the  two  arcs  meet, 
and  yon  will  have  the  desired  line.  By  meas- 
uring off  the  distances  on  these  two  lines,  the 
rows  and  the  vines  will  be  equally  distant 
from  each  other.  We  have  named  eight  and  ten 
feet,  but  any  distances  will  do,  so  that  the  last 
be  greater  than  the  first. 

Another  simple  method  is  by  the  use  of  a 
ten  foot  pole.  Ascertain  one  line  as  before, 
and  drive  a  stake  where  it  is  proposed  to  have 
the  corner.     From  this  stake  measure  off  eight 


32  American  Grape  Culture. 

feet  on  the  line,  and  put  a  pin  in  it.  With  a 
loop  attach  another  string  to  the  stake,  and 
measure  off  six  feet  on  it,  marking  the  point 
with  a  pin.  Place  one  end  of  the  pole  on  the 
first  string  at  the  point  marked  by  the  pin,  and 
move  the  other  string  till  the  pin  in  it  touches 
the  other  end  of  the  pole,  and  a  right  angle 
will  be  formed.  Both  these  methods  are  sim- 
ple and  of  easy  application. 

Distances  at  ivliicli  to  Plant. — Something  may 
also  be  said  here  in  reo^ard  to  the  distances  at 
which  the  vines  should  be  planted,  which  vary, 
among  different  persons,  from  two  to  twelve 
or  more  feet.  The  discrepancies  which  exist 
among  cultivators  on  this  point  may  be  re- 
ferred chiefl}^  to  the  different  systems  of  train- 
ing that  have  been  adopted,  and  will  disappear 
as  uniformity  becomes  more  general,  which  un- 
doubtedly mil  be  the  case  to  a. much  greater 
extent  than  obtains  at  present.  Vines  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  possess  various  degrees  of  vigor, 
and  the  inference  is  natural  that  some  kinds 
should  be  planted  closer  together  than  othere. 
The  question  to  be  decided  is,  not  how  far 
apart,  but  how  close  together  vines  may  be 
planted  consistently  with  the  objects  we  have 


Laying  Out  the  Vineyard.  33 

in  view  in  growing  tliem.  We  sliall  answer  the 
question  by  saying,  for  general  purposes,  place 
the  rows  six  feet  apart,  and  the  vines  four  feet 
apart  in  the  rows,  if  two  tiers  of  arms  are  con- 
templated. If  only  one  tier,  then  the  distance 
between  the  rows  may  vary  from  three  and  a 
half  to  five  feet,  and  the  j)lants  may  be  five  or 
six  feet  aj)art.  For  rank-growing  kinds,  a  foot 
more  may  be  added  in  each  case.  If  the  vines 
are  to  be  trained  on  stakes,  six  by  four  is  a 
good  distance.  The  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
mode  of  training  must  have  something  to  do 
with  the  decision  of  this  question.  The  vines 
should  be  planted  close  enough  to  check  re- 
dundancy of  growth,  but  not  so  close  as  to  im- 
pair theu'  vitality. 


CHAPTER   V. 

PLAJS^TESTG   THE   VESTEYAED. 

Plants  and  Planting. — This  part  of  the  sub- 
ject would  seem  to  come  in  naturally  at  this 
point.  We  shall  include  under  this  head,  the 
Best  Kind  of  Plants  to  PurcJiase,  Hoiu  to  Plants 
Best  Time  to  Plants  and  Time  to  Buy.  In  regard 
to  the  first,  vines  are  divided  into,  1st,  Plants 
from  Single  Eijes^  of  which  Fig.  2  is  a  very  fine 
specimen,  and  Fig.  3,  on  an  enlarged  scale,  an 
extra  fine  one,  as  good,  indeed,  as  it  is  possible 
to  make ;  2d,  Plants  from  Cuttings^  of  which 
Figs.  4,  5,  and  6  are  good  specimens  of  their 
kinds  from  two,  three,  and  four  eyes ;  3d, 
Plants  from  Layers^  of  which  Fig.  7  is  one  of  the 
best  examples ;  4th,  Plants  from  Green  Wood. 
We  present  these  engravings,  in  order  that  the 
reader  may  have  the  means  of  distinguishing 
vines  of  the  best  quality  from  those  that  are 
not.     Further  on  v/e  shall  show  how  all  these 


Planting  the  Vineyakd.  85 

are  made ;  at  present  we  simply  wish  to  indi- 
cate which  are  best  to  purchase.     For  general 


Fig.  2. 

planting  we  recommend  plants  one  year  old 
from  single  eyes:  next,  plants  from  cuttings, 
and  preferably  those  from  two  eyes,  or  at  most 
three ;  for  special  j^urposes,  the  best  form  of 
layers;  and  last  of  all,  but  especially  to  be 
avoided  for  the  vineyard,  plants  one  year  old 
from  green  wood. 


FiR.  8. 


Planting  the  Vineyard. 


37 


A  few  remarks  may  here  be  offered  in  regard 
to  the  relative  value  of  vines  one  year  or  more 
old.  There  seems  to  be  a  prevalent  opinion,  at 
least  among  beginners,  that,  for  planting,  the 
vine  increases  in  value  with  its  age;  whereas 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


the  very  opposite  of  this  is  true.  We  lay  down 
the  general  rule,  that  a  well-grown  vine  is  in 
its  best  condition  for  planting  when  one  year 
old.  There  are  but  few  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
and  some  of  these  are  only  seeming  exceptions. 
The  real  exceptions  are  vines  that  have  been 


38  American  Geape  Culture. 

grown  in  large  pots  or  tubs,  and  even  tliese  lose 
tlieii'  value  beyond  the  tMrd  year.  The  seem- 
ing exceptions  consist  of  plants  that  have  been 
root-pruned  and  transj)lanted  when  one  year 
old ;  but  these  are  substantially  one  year  old 
plants,  better  if  the  work  has  been  well  done ; 
but  if  not  well  done,  they   are  not   so   good. 


Skillful  nurserymen  can,  if  they  will,  make 
strong  plants  out  of  weak  ones  by  root-pruning 
and  transplanting;  they  can  even  make  good 
plants  exceedingly  good  in  this  way,  at  an  in- 
creased cost ;  but  they  are  still  substantially 
one  year  old  plants.  Fig.  8  is  an  example  of  a 
root-pruned  vine  grown  a  second  year  in  a  large 


40 


American  Grape  Culture. 


pot,  and  receiving  special  treatment,  with  a 
view  of  producing  tlie  best  description  of  plant : 
nothing  could  be  better.  A  vine  three  or  more 
years  old,  that  has  not  been  transplanted,  has 
generally  but  little  value ;  and  yet  people  very 
often  pay  as  much  for  one  such  vine  as  would 
buy  a  dozen  really  good  ones.  They  are  gen- 
erally bought  under  the  supposition  that  they 


Fig.  9. 


will  get  fi-uit  from  them  sooner,  and  more  of 
it ;  but  they  do  neither.  The  results  and 
advantages  of  root-pruning  and  transplanting 
are  admirably  shown  in  Fig.  9,  a  sketch  from 
life. 

These  different  kinds  of  plants  are  not  all 
planted  in  precisely  the  same  way,  and  our 
purpose  now  is  to  point  out  the  difference.    We 


Planting  the  Vineyard.  41 

must  here  make  the  preliminary  remark,  that 
the  roots  of  the  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to 
get  dry.  The  roots  are  furnished  with  many 
little  mouths,  and  if  these  get  dried  up,  they 
never  reopen.  The  plant  has  then  to  spend  a 
portion  of  its  vitality  in  forming  new  ones, 
which  sometimes  so  exhausts  it  that  it  remains 
feeble  during  the  whole  season.  Every  thing 
should  be  so  ordered  as  to  secm*e,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  integrity  of  the  vital  principle  of  the 
plant.  When  the  vines  are  taken  to  the  vine- 
yard to  be  planted,  they  should  be  covered 
with  wet  matting  or  cloths,  and  removed  only 
one  at  a  time. 

First,  let  us  take  the  single-eye  plant.  The 
ground  having  been  already  prepared,  we 
have  nothing  to  do  but  dig  a  hole  of  the  prop- 
er size,  and  have  at  hand  some  good  fine 
soil  to  place  around  the  roots.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  among  beginners  to  bed  the  roots 
in  manure ;  a  practice  that  is  often  fatal  to 
the  best  of  vines,  but  esj)ecially  to  those  that 
are  weak.  We  may  remark,  in  a  general  way, 
that  we  aim  to  place  the  roots  from  four  to 
ten  inches  beneath  the  surface,  according  as 
the  soil  is  heavy  or  light.  We  may  also  add 
the  caution,  that  the   soil  will  sink,  but  the 


42 


American  Grape  Culture. 


vines  will  not.     Tliis  may  be  avoided,  to  some 
extent,  by  working  the  soil  in  firmly  among  the 


I 


1 
I 
I 


Fig.  11. 


roots,  but  without  packing  it.  Now  dig  a  hole 
about  eighteen  inches  wide  and  from  six  to  ten 
inches  deep,  according  to  the  texture  of  the 


Fig.  12. 


soil,  the  greatest  depth  being  for  light  sandy 
soil.    The  hole  will  then  be  like  Mg.  10,  c  being 


Planting  the  Vineyard.  43 

tlie  heap  of  soil  taken  from  tlie  hole.  Next, 
with  the  fine  soil  at  hand  raise  a  cone  as  shown 
in  Fig.  11,  so  that  the  roots  shall  be  about 
four  inches  from  the  surface.  In  the  cut,  how- 
ever, the  cone  is  too  sharp,  except  for  very  small 
vines.  Now  prune  or  shorten  the  principal 
roots  as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  and  place  the  plant 
on  the  center  of  the  cone.  While  the  plant  is 
held  in  its  place  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  the  left  hand,  the  roots  must  be  carefully- 
spread  out,  ray-like,  with  the  right ;  the  assist- 
ant, with  a  spade,  then  sifts  or  shakes  in  some 
fine  soil,  which  must  be  carefully  and  firmly 
worked  in  among  the  roots.  By  taking  a  portion 
of  the  roots  at  a  time,  and  using  the  unemploy- 
ed fingers  of  the  left  hand,  a  little  practice  will 
enable  one  to  so  spread  out  and  cover  the  roots, 
that  no  one  of  them  shall  come  in  contact  with 
another.  If  the  roots  are  abundant,  and  over- 
lap each  other,  as  is  the  case  with  the  best  vines, 
the  overlapping  roots  must  be  held  up  while 
those  beneath  them  are  being  covered,  so  as  to 
place  a  layer  of  soil  between  them.  The  hole 
is  then  to  be  filled  up,  and  the  cane  cut  down 
to  three  eyes  or  buds. 

Another  plan,  well  adapted  to  light  soils,  and 
also  to  prevent  the  ill  effects  of  drought,  is  to 


44 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Fig.  13. 


make  the  hole  about  five  inclies  deeper,  and 
proceed  in  all  respects  as  above,  except  that  the 
hole  must  not  be  entirely  filled  up  ;  an  excava- 
tion of  five   or   six   inches 
being  left,    which  may  be 
filled  up  on  the  approach  of 
winter.    A  vine  thus  plant- 
ed  is   shown   in   Fig.    13. 
This  is  also  a  good  plan  for 
weak  vines,  which  are  very 
apt   to  die  if  the  roots  at 
planting  are  covered  as  deep 
as  they  should   be  permanently.     As   a  rule, 
the  roots,  in  such  cases,  should  not  be  covered 
more    than    four    inches    when    the    vine    is 
planted.    If  water  is  needed  in  time  of  drought, 
the  hole  gives  the  plant  the  full  benefit  of  it, 
and   prevents    rapid   evaporation.      The   hole 
should  be  filled  in  the  fall,  and  the  soil  raised 
around  the  plant  so  as  to  shed  water,  but  should 
be  opened  again  the  next  spring  if  the  growth 
of  the  vine  has  been  weak.     A  feeble  vine  thus 
planted  is  shown  in  Fig.  14,  B  being  the  soil 
covering  the  roots,  C  the  depth  left  unfilled,  F 
the  ground  surface,  and  D  the  point  at  which 
the  cane  is  to  be  pruned. 

Some  kind  of  protection  often  becomes  neces- 


Planting  the  Vineyaed. 


45 


sary  for  the   newly  planted  vine.      This  may 
be  cheaply  provided  by  nailing  together  two 


i/o-/fKi^^4 


;$^' 


^^^^"^ 


Fig.  14. 


pieces  of  board  one  foot  wide,  and  from  eigh- 
teen inches  to  two  feet  long,  as  shown  in  Fig,  15. 
Place  this  so  that  the  two  boards  run  south 
and  east,  with  the  plant  in  the  comer  or  angle. 
This  will  shelter  the  plant  on  the  north  and 
west,  the  points  where  shelter  is  most  generally 


needed.  Another  and  better  form  of  shelter 
may  be  made  of  three  pieces  of  board,  put  to- 
gether as  in  Fig.  16,  and  placed  with  the  open 


side  facing  the  southeast. 


Next  in  order  comes  the  plant  made  from  a 


46 


Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 


cutting,  whicli  usually  presents  tlie  appearance 
shown   in  Fig.  17,  when  grown  from  a  long 


cane.     It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  four 
tiers  of  roots.     If  the  roots  of  the  upper  tier 


Fig.  IT. 


are  good,  the  lower  tiers  may  be  cut  away,  and 


Planting  the  Vineyakd.  47 

the  vine  will  in  that  case  be  planted  as  already 
described.  If  tlie  upper  roots,  however,  are  few 
and  feeble,  the  next  tier"  must  be  retained,  the 
upper  one  shaved  off,  and  the  two  lower  ones 
cut  entirely  away ;  for  if  they  were  retained 
and  covered  vrith  soil,  the  lower  roots  would, 
as  a  general  thing,  be  too  deeply  planted.  If 
two  tiers  are  retained,  the  upper  must  be  held 
up  by  the  hand  while  the  lower  are  being 
sj)read  out  and  covered ;  and  then  the  same 
oj^eration  must  be  repeated  with  the  upper. 
But  there  is  no  necessity  for  retaining  two, 
since  the  lower  roots  usually  die  in  conse- 
quence of  being  placed  so  deep  in  the  ground. 
With  the  exception  noted,  the  vine  from  a  cut- 
ting is  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  one  from 
a  bud.  When  the  plant  has  been  made  from  a 
cutting  of  two  eyes,  {Fig.  4,  p.  37,)  there  is  only 
one  tier  of  roots,  and  the  treatment,  of  course, 
differs  in  no  respect  from  that  first  described. 

Next  in  order  comes  the  layei\  which  will 
need  some  special  directions.  The  rooted  por- 
tion of  a  layer  consists  of  a  piece  of  cane  which 
has  emitted  roots  from  each  joint.  These  roots 
are  evenly  and  regularly  disposed  along  each 
side,  and  overlap  each  other  more  or  less. 
These  roots  should  be  pruned  or  shortened  to 


4.8 


American  Grape  Culture. 


about  eiglit  or  ten  inclies  in  lengtli.  A  layer 
thus  pruned,  and  laid  in  the  hole,  with  the 
roots  spread  out  ready  to  be  covered,  may  be 
seen  in  Fig.  18.  Fig.  19  is  a  front  view  of 
the  same  vine.  The  hole  should  be  dug  some 
six  or  eight  inches  deep,  as  before  directed,  and 
twenty  inches  square,  or  large  enough  to  admit 


the  roots  when  spread  out.  Proceed  as  fol- 
lows :  set  a  stake  firmly,  to  support  the  vine 
while  growing ;  then  place  the  vine  in  position 
in  the  hole,  and  taking  the  roots  on  one  side, 
spread  out  evenly  all  that  will  lie  on  the  soil 
without  overlapping  each  other,  holding  the  rest 
up  ;   cover  them  with  an  inch  or  so  of  soil,  and 


Planting  the  Vineyaed. 


41) 


then  spread  out  tlie  others  in  the  same  way, 
and  cover  with  soil.  Having  finished  one  side, 
proceed  with  the  other  in  the  same  way,  and 
then  fill  up  the  hole.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  in  all  cases  of  planting,  fine  soil  is  to  be 
well  worked  in  among  the  roots. 


Fig.  19. 


Lastly,  we  come  to  the  plant  from  a  green  cut- 
ting. We  would  advise  that  this  be  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  skillful  nurseryman  for  a  year  or 
two  more,  to  be  manipulated  by  him  into  a  tol- 
erably good  vine.  It  is  his  business,  and  he 
can  do  it  cheaper  and  better  than  you  can.     At 

4 


50  American  Grape  Culture. 

that  time  it  may  be  planted  in  the  manner  first 
directed.  As  for  buying  the  vine  the  first 
year — well,  we  would  rather  be  excused. 

We  have  cautioned  the  reader  against  put- 
ting manure  in  contact  with  the  roots,  and  it 
will  do  no  harm  to  repeat  the  caution.  After 
the  roots  have  been  covered  with  two  or  three 
inches  of  soil,  all  the  manure  necessary  may  be 
added  to  the  toj^.  A  finely  prepared  compost 
may  in  this  way  be  added  with  good  results 
but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  stimulants 
too  freely.  We  want  a  good  healthy  growth, 
commensurate  with  the  vigor  of  the  vine ;  but 
beyond  this,  what  is  called  a  "  great  growth " 
is  generally  an  evil,  for  the  wood  is  made  soft, 
fails  to  I'ipen  thoroughly,  and  is,  in  conse- 
quence, often  winter-killed ;  besides,  there  are 
other  and  serious  evils  attending  the  too  free 
use  of  gross  manures. 

Time  to  Plant. — In  regard  to  the  best  time  to 
plant,  vineyardists  are  not  all  agreed,  some  fa- 
voring the  spring,  and  others,  and  perhaps 
much  the  largest  number,  the  fall.  In  some 
northern  localities  sj^ring  planting  may  have 
predominating  advantages ;  but,  as  a.  general 
rule,  we  prefer  to  plant  in  the  fall,  and  cover 
the   vines.      If  _  clone    early,   the    roots    have 


Planting  the  Vineyard.  51 

an  opportunity  of  establisliing  themselves  in 
their  new  quarters,  and  are  ready  for  early 
spring  work.  We  usually  have  more  time  in 
the  fall,  are  less  hurried,  and  do  the  work  bet- 
ter. The  vines  in  the  fall  are  in  their  best  con- 
dition for  handling,  and  the  buds  receive  less. in- 
jury from  the  rough  usage  they  generally  meet 
■with  in  being  planted ;  in  short,  all  the  ma- 
nipulations incidental  to  planting  can  be  better 
done  in  the  fall.  In  the  spring  the  buds  are 
soft,  and  many  of  them  are  rubbed  off,  leaving 
us  dependent  upon  secondary  buds  and  a  small- 
er growth.  Every  thing  seems  to  be  "  in  a 
hurry,"  and  most  things  get  "  a  lick  and  a  prom- 
ise," the  vines  receiving  their  full  share.  A 
succession  of  fears  worry  us  from  morning  till 
night ;  we  are  strongly  tempted  to  slight  our 
most  important  work,  and  only  too  often  yield 
to  the  temptation. 

Ti7ne  to  Buy. — ^Whatever  may  be  said  about 
the  relative  advantages  of  spring  and  fall 
planting,  there  ought  to  be  no  doubt  about  the 
great  advantage  of  fall  buying.  The  buds  are 
then  firm,  and  the  vines  can  be  handled  with- 
out injury ;  the  atmosphere  is  cool  and  moist, 
and  the  roots  suffer  but  little  from  exposure; 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  buds  swelling  during 


52  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

transportation ;  every  thing,  in  brief,  is  favor- 
able  to  tlie  lifting,  packing,  and  sliipiDiug  of  the 
vines,  and  they  are  received  in  good  order.  In 
the  spring,  the  very  opposite  of  these  conditions 
exist,  and  it  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  re- 
ceive vines  with  the  buds  gone,  bruised,  or 
started  into  growth,  greatly  to  the  damage  of 
the  vines,  and  sometimes  resulting  in  much 
loss.  Our  advice  is,  to  buy  in  the  fall ;  to  plant 
as  long  as  the  work  can  be  well  done ;  to  "  heel 
in "  the  vines  that  are  left  over,  and  finish  the 
planting  early  in  the  spring,  or  as  soon  as  the 
ground  has  become  warm.  We  should  prefer 
to  buy  in  the  fall,  even  though  we  did  not 
plant  till  spring.  From  what  we  have  said, 
the  reasons  will  be  obvious. 

The  plants,  when  received,  should  be  "  heeled 
in  "  as  follows  :  select  a  dry  place,  where  water 
can  not  stand,  and  dig-  a  trench  eio-liteen  inches 
deep  and  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  wide, 
throwing  the  earth  all  on .  one  side.  In  this 
trench  the  vines  are  to  be  placed  close  together 
in  a  slanting  position,  and  the  roots  covered 
with  soil  to  the  depth  of  a  foot.  Where  a 
large  ntunber  of  vines  are  to  be  "  heeled  in," 
the  trench  may  be  dug  wider,  and  when  the 
roots  of  the  first  row  are  covered,  another  row 


Planting  the  Vineyard.  53 

may  be  placed  in  front  of  tliem.  Several  rows 
may  be  placed  together  in  this  way.  There  is 
no  danger  of  covering  the  vines  too  deep,  if  the 
soil  is  dry;  the  error  of  not  covering  them 
enough  is  often  committed.  The  earth  over  the 
trench  is  to  be  rounded  off,  so  as  to  shed  water. 
If  the  canes  are  mostly  covered,  so  mucb  the 
better.  For  additional  security,  a  little  brush 
or  coarse  litter  may  be  thrown  on  tbe  top. 
Protected  in  this  way,  vines  may  be  kept  in 
good  condition  during  the  severest  of  winters. 

Where  a  cool  cellar  is  at  command,  th.e  vines 
may  be  better  kej)t  with  less  trouble.  In  this 
case  they  should  be  bedded  in  clean  coarse 
sand,  that  is  just  moist,  but  not  wet.  The 
vines  may  be  placed  close  together  on  the  floor 
of  the  cellar,  and  the  sand  worked  in  carefully 
among  the  roots,  whicli  should  be  covered  from 
six  inches  to  a  foot.  The  vines  may  be  packed 
in  boxes  in  the  same  way.  If  the  sand  should 
get  dry,  it  must  be  moistened  a  little,  but  not 
made  wet.  An  advantage  wiU  be  gained 
by  pruning  the  roots  before  packing  them 
away.  The  wounds  will  callus  before  spring, 
and  be  ready  to  emit  new  roots  immediately 
after  being  planted. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  advantages  of  buy- 


54  American  Grape  Culture. 

ing  and  planting  in  tlie  fall,  a  large  majority 
will  probably  continue,  as  at  present,  to  pur- 
chase in  the  spring.  They  will  perhaps  be 
governed  by  a  desire  to  save  trouble,  or  the 
fear  of  losing  their  plants  through  some  mis- 
management of  the  details  of  "heeling  in,"  or 
the  trying  alternations  of  winter.  Under  such 
cii'cumstances,  most  of  the  advantages  above 
named  may  be  secured  for  spring  by  proper 
fall  management  of  the  plants  on  the  part  of 
the  propagator.  The  plants  should  be  "lifted" 
or  dug  up  in  the  fall,  and  the  unripe  roots,  if 
any,  cut  off,  and  the  healthy  character  of  the 
plants  well  ascertained.  They  should  then  be 
carefully  "  heeled  in "  in  clean  sand  in  the 
manner  just  described.  Careful  propagators 
have  a  cellar  or  pit  specially  prepared  for  this 
purjDose,  in  which  the  plants  keep  admirably, 
the  conditions  of  safety  being  well  understood 
and  thoughtfully  provided.  Where  a  cellar  or 
pit  is  not  possessed,  recourse  must  be  had  to 
the  open  air.  In  tliis  case,  a  place  sheltered 
from  the  south  should  be  selected,  and  the 
plants  bedded  in  sand.  This  may  be  permit- 
ted to  freeze  a  few  inches,  but  the  frost  should 
not  be  allowed  to  reach  the  roots.  The  whole 
should  then  be  covered  with  straw  and  ever- 


Planting  the  Vineyard.  55 

greens,  to  prevent  thawing  till  thjs  plants  are 
wanted  in  spring.  In  botli  tliese  ways,  vines 
may  be  kept  from  growing  in  the  spring  for  a 
considerable  time  after  vegetation  has  begun  in 
the  open  air.  In  this  manner  good  vines  may 
be  secured  for  late  spring  planting,  after  danger 
from  late  frosts  has  passed,  and  with  a  certain- 
ty of  a  good  growth,  if  the  vines  are  carefully 
handled,  and  the  conditions  of  planting  duly 
observed.  Ultimate  success  depends  so  much 
upon  securing  a  healthy,  well-ripened  growth 
during;  the  first  season,  that  we  have  dwelt 
somewhat  at  length  upon  this  part  of  the  sub- 
ject. 


CHAPTER  VL 

TEAINrPfG ^FIRST   AND    SECOND    YEAES. 

Training. — If  our  directions  tlius  far  have 
been  clear  to  the  appreliension  of  the  reader, 
and  have  been  faithfully  observed,  we  shall 
have  a  good  and  durable  foundation  upon 
which  to  build  our  superstructure.  Unlike 
many  other  superstructures,  this  one  must  be 
built  slowly ;  as  it  were,  one  stone  at  a  time. 
The  laws  of  vegetable  growth  are  inexorable. 
By  no  skill  of  ours  can  we  alter  them ;  but  by 
studying  their  nature  and  ojDeration,  we  may 
gain  as  much  knowledge  as  will  enable  us  to 
apply  them  to  certain  given  cases  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  produce  their  legitimate  results 
with  great  uniformity ;  we  may,  by  judiciously 
cooperating  with  them,  and  affording  the  as- 
certained requirements,  enjoy  these  results  in 
their  most  perfect  form.  It  is  our  purpose 
now  to  state  what  these  requirements  are,  so 


TeAINING — ^FlRST  AND  SECOND   YeAES.  57 

far  as  we  have  ascertained  them  by  our  own 
experience. 

There  are  certain  technical  terms,  the  use  of 
which  it  is  hardly  possible  to  avoid,  even  if  it 
were  desirable.  The  most  of  these  will  be 
readily  understood;  those  that  are  obscure 
will  be  properly  explained.  There  are  a  few, 
however,  of  such  various  and  loose  application, 
that  their  use  necessarily  begets  confusion. 
Such,  for  example,  is  the  word  lateral^  which  is 
applied  to  any  shoot  growing  laterally  from 
another,  such  as  an  upright  cane,  a  horizontal 
arm,  etc. ;  it  is  also  applied  to  the  little  green 
shoot  which  proceeds  from  the  base  of  the 
leaves,  and  here  it  is  simply  meaningless.  Di". 
Grant  has  introduced  the  word  tliallon  for  use 
here.  It  is  clearly  from  the  Greek  ■BalXog^  mean- 
ing a  small  branch,  sprig,  or  little  shoot,  ex- 
pressing precisely  what  we  desire  to  say.  By 
the  aid  of  c  privative,  we  naturally  form  ailial- 
lage^  athallizing^  etc.,  words  expressing  an  ope- 
ration which  has  heretofore  required  an  ungain- 
ly circumlocution.  We  dislike  the  introduction 
of  new  words  as  much  as  any  body  can ;  but  new 
arts  often  demand,  for  the  sake  of  precision  and 
brevity,  the  introduction  of  new  words,  and 
their  scholarly  application,  and  there  seems  to 


58  American  Grape  Culture. 

be  a  necessity  for  it  here ;  we  propose,  there- 
fore, to  adopt  these  new  words,  in  the  hope 
that  theii'  directness  and  conciseness  will  give 
them  general  favor/'^' 

We  will  now  proceed  with  the  subject  of 
training  with  all  the  brevity  that  is  consistent 
with  clearness.  There  are  still  not  a  few  per- 
sons who  doubt  the  necessity  or  utility  of 
training  the  vine.  Some  will  point  with  a 
scarcely  concealed  look  of  triumph  to  the  wild 
vine  clinging  to  some  primeval  denizen  of  the 
forest,  and  wreathing  it  with  festoons.  We  are 
not  insensible  to  the  picturesque  beauty  of  the 
vine  as  it  lovingly  clings   to  some  noble  old 


*  The  following  are  the  words,  with  their  definitions,  which  we 
give  in  order  that  the  reader  may  understand  precisely  how 
they  are  used :  Tliallon,  n.  (Greek,  iSaAAof.)  A  sprig  or  little 
shoot,  especially  one  proceeding  from  the  base  or  leaf,  as  in  the 
grape-vine.  Athallage,  n.  (a  priv.  and  i?aA/lof.)  The  act  or  opera- 
tion of  removing  or  pinching  off  sprigs  or  little  shoots,  either 
partly  or  wholly.  Athallize,  v.  t.  To  remove  or  pinch  off  sprigs  or 
little  shoots,  either  partly  or  wholly.  Athallizing,  ppr.  Removing 
or  pinching  off  sprigs  or  little  shoots,  either  partly  or  wholly. 
Athallized,  pp.  Having  the  sprigs  or  little  shoots  removed  or 
pinched  off,  either  partly  or  wholly.  Thus  thallons,  for  our  pur- 
pose, wiU  mean  the  little  shoots  growing  from  the  base  of  the 
leaf  on  the  green  cane ;  and  athallage,  the  act  or  operation  of 
pinching  off  the  shoots  at  one  leaf  from  the  base,  etc.  Each 
time  the  thallon  is  athallized,  an  additional  leaf  wiU  be  left.  In 
Fig.  21,  p.  63,  the  thallons  may  be  distinctly  seen  proceeding  from 
the  base  of  the  leaves ;  and  it  may  be  further  seen  that  they  have 
been  athalhzed  a  third  time,  the  plant  being  a  strong  one.  We 
venture  to  hope  that  we  have  made  the  application  clear. 


Training — First  and  Second  Years,        o9 

tree,  and  with  its  beautiful  drapery  strives  to 
conceal  tlie  nakedness  of  its  waning  years; 
but  we  would  respectfully  suggest,  that  while 
it  is  a  beautiful  picture  for  some  appreciative 
artist  to  copy,  it  is  hardly  a  fit  subject  for  the 
vineyardist  to  follow  as  a  model.  So,  too,  of 
vines  more  properly  located,  and  growing  un- 
pruned  on  apj)le  and  other  trees.  They  will 
produce  some  good  fruit,  but  not  as  good  as  it 
might  be,  and  by  no  means  as  good  as  is  grown 
on  vines  judiciously  trained ;  the  fruit  fails  in 
quality,  and  dwindles  away,  from  year  to  year, 
becoming  at  last  almost  as  hard  and  indigesti- 
ble as  that  grown  in  the  woods.  Besides,  the 
practice,  if  adopted,  would  be  found  an  exceed- 
ingly wasteful  one.  The  fact  should  be  accept- 
ed, that  training  is  a  necessity  to  all  who  aim 
at  economy  and  the  best  results.  It  has  the 
great  value  of  systematizing  all  our  labors,  plac- 
ing the  vine  within  easy  reach,  and  reducing  the 
necessary  manipulations  to  their  lowest  terms. 
By  way  of  introduction,  it  will  perhaps  ena- 
ble the  beginner  more  readily  to  understand  the 
details  of  practice,  if  we  fii'st  give  him  a  general 
idea  of  the  vine.  The  vine  is  composed  of  dif- 
ferent members  or  parts,  known  to  cultivators 
by  names  that  have  a  more  or  less  technical  ap- 


60  American  Grape  Culture. 

plication.  These  will  be  understood  by  an  in- 
spection of  Fig.  20,  the  left-hand  side  of  which 
is  a  vine  pruned  for  fruit.  The  part  D,  proceed- 
ing from  the  ground,  is  called  the  stock  or  body 
of  the  vine.  The  horizontal  part,  C,  growing 
at  right  angles  from  the  stock,  is  called  a  horizon- 
tal arm.  A,  A,  A,  on  this  arm,  are  spurs: 
B,  B,  B,  are  canes.  There  are  other  parts, 
which  the  reader  will  learn  as  we  go  along ; 


Fig.  20. 

but  these  are  the  principal  ones,  and  the  en- 
graving shows  their  relation  to  each  other. 
The  right-hand  side  of  the  engraving  shows  the 
vine  in  fruit  on  the  renewal  system,  with  the 
canes  unpruned,  which  will  be  explained  in  its 
proper  place. 

Double  Horizontal  Arms — First  Year. — 
There  are  many  modes  of  training,  some  of  the 
best  of  which  we  shall  explain ;  but  all  good 


Training — First  and  Second  Years.       61 

ones  start  from  one  and  the  same  point.  We 
therefore  ask  the  reader's  particular  attention 
to  what  we  shall  say  of  the  vine  during  the 
first  three  years  of  its  life.  That  part  of  the 
subject  being  well  understood,  the  rest  becomes 
comparatively  easy.  We  propose  now  to  take 
a  single  vine,  and  carry  it  through  the  first  year 
of  its  growth.  At  the  time  of  planting,  we 
directed  the  vine  to  be  cut  down  to  three  eyes 
or  buds.  From  these  eyes  three  shoots  will 
grow.  When  they  have  reached  the  length 
of  three  or  four  inches,  the  strongest  must  be 
selected,  and  the  other  two  rubbed  ofi".  It  is 
an  object,  however,  to  have  the  selected  cane  as 
low  down  as  possible ;  if,  therefore,  the  three 
are  nearly  of  the  same  strength,  rub  off  the  two 
upper  ones.  The  one  selected  must  be  tied  to  a 
stake,  and  the  tying  repeated  from  time  to  tune, 
as  growth  progresses.  It  is  an  essentially  bad 
practice  to  let  the  canes  grow  on  the  ground. 

We  propose  the  first  year  to  grow  one  strong 
healthy  cane,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  21.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  tying  the  cane  to  a  stake, 
and  having  recourse  to  athallage.  We  thus 
secure  large  and  durable  foliage,  fitted  to  with- 
stand changes  in  the  weather  and  the  attacks  of 
disease  ;  better  and  more  enduring  roots  ;  and  a 


m^ 


tJ 


—     t 


??J^ 


x^* 


'"^u 


-??; 


^ 


1 


yUS- 


Fiir.  21. 


Training— EiRST  and  Second  Years.       63 

liealtliy,  well-ripened  cane.  As  the  young  shoot 
progresses  in  growth,  the  thallons  (C,  C)  make 
their  ai3pearance,  and  must  receive  our  atten- 
tion.    To  secure  the  full  benefits  of  athallao-e 
it  must  be  performed  at  the  right  moment; 
this  is  when  the  first  leaf  on  the  thallon  has 
reached  the  size  of  a  half  dollar,  (if  the  reader 
can  remember  how  large  that  was ;  to  the  best 
of   our    recollection,  it  was   over   an   inch   in 
diameter ;)  the  end  must  then  be  pinched  ofl, 
(not  cut,)  so  as  to  leave  only  the  single  little 
leaf     By  athallizing   at   this   early  stage,  we 
avoid  that  shock  to  the  action  of  the  roots 
which  takes  place  when  it  is  perfonned  after 
the  thallon  has  made  a  considerable   growth. 
There  is  scarcely  any  check  to  the  growth  of 
the   j^lant;    the  vital  force,  or  action,   which 
would  otherwise  have  gone  to  the  extension  of 
the  thallon,  is  now  directed  in  part  to  the  little 
leaf  and  the  bud  at  its  base ;  the  leaf  increases 
in  size  and  improves  in  texture ;  becomes,  in- 
deed, much  larger  than  it  would  otherwise  have 
been  ;  the  bud  also  increases  in  size,  and  finally 
bursts  into  a  new  shoot.     All  this  has  taken 
many  days,  but  the  thallon  has  not  increased 
in  length.     After  the  bursting  of  the  bud,  the 
thallon  is  allowed  to  grow  till  the  first  new 


64  American  G-rape  Culture. 

leaf  has  readied  about  the  diameter  of  an  inch, 
when  it  must  be  athallized  precisely  as  before. 
If  the  vine  is  growing  strongly,  it  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  repeat  the  operation  a  third  time, 
after  which  the  thallons  may  be  allowed  to  take 
care  of  themselves.     We  have  spoken  of  one 
thallon ;  but  there  will  be  one  at  the  base  of 
nearly  every  leaf,  and  all  must  be  treated  alike. 
This  is  clearly  shown  on  the  vine  in  Fig.  21, 
where   the   fir^   thallon   has    been   athallized 
three  times,  and  the  others  twice,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  on  the  left,  about  half-way  up. 
We  have  said  above  that  the  vital  force  is  di- 
rected in  part  to  the  little  leaf  and  the  bud  at 
its  base ;  the  rest  goes  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  cane  and  its  proper  leaves,  as  well  as  the 
buds  at  their  base.     The  whole  vine  has  thus 
been  benefited,  both  above  and  below  ground. 
The  young  vine,  treated  as  above,  is  allowed 
to  grow  till  about  the  beginning  of  September, 
when  the  extreme  end  of  the  growing  cane  is 
to  be  pinched  out.     This  will  materially  help 
in  ripening  the  upper  portion  of  the  cane  and 
buds,  especially  if  the  operation  is  repeated  at 
the  end  of  two  or  three  weeks.     On  the  vine  in 
Fig.  21  this  has  been  done  twice,  as  may  be 
seen  at  A  and  B.     With  the  exception  of  tying 


Teaining— First  and  Second  Yeaks.      65 


up,  the  vine  will  need  no  further  care  in  the 
way  of  training.    When  the  leaves  have  ripened 
and  fallen  off,  the  vine  will  have  the  appearance 
presented  in  Fig.  22.     It  may  be  regarded  as 
an  example  of  a  first-class  vine.     Let  Fig.  23  be 
taken  as  the  same  vine  on  a 
reduced  scale.    In  November, 
or  before  the  ground  freezes, 
the  cane  must  be  pruned  to 
three   eyes,  as   indicated   by 
the  cross  mark.     It  may  then 
be  bent  down,  and  an  inch  or 
so  of  earth  thrown   over  it, 
and  thus  left  for  the  winter. 
Fig.  24  shows  how  vines  may 
be  prepared  for  laying  down 
and   covering.     Cedar  brush 
may    be    thrown    over    the 
plants   instead    of   earth,  or 
the  covering  may  be  omitted 
altogether  in  favorable  local- 
ities, though  it  is  always  a 
safe   and   j)rudent  course   to 
give  some  kind  of  protection 
to  young  vines.   The  pruning 
may  be  left  till  spring,  but  it 
is  far  better  to  do  it  in  the  fall. 


Fig.  28. 


66 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Second  Year. — In  the  spring  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  is  to  uncover  the  vines.  There  is 
clanger  of  doing  this  too  soon.  In  northern 
and  exposed  localities,  the  vines  should  remain 
covered  till  danger  from  late  frosts  is  past,  for 
vines  that  are  covered  will  not  begin  growing 


Fig.  24. 

as  soon  as  those  that  are  uncovered.  If  the 
pruning  was  neglected  in  the  fall,  it  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  the  vines  are  uncovered.  We 
shall  say  nothing  here  about  cultivation,  reserv- 
ing that  for  another  place,  but  we  shall  suppose 
that  the  ground  has  been  plowed  or  spaded, 
and  the  pruned  vines  tied  to  the  stakes,  ready 
for  growth.  We  .propose  to  grow  two  good 
canes  this  year.     We  left  three  buds  at  the  time 


Training — First  and  Second  Years.      67 

of  pruning,  but  one  was  simj^ly  intended  to  in- 
sure against  loss  by  accident.  When  tlie  young 
canes  liave  grown  about  three  inches,  one  of 
them  must  be  rubbed  off,  and  that  should  be  the 
weakest ;  yet  it  is  desirable  that  the  two  that  re- 
main should  be  on  opposite  sides.  Usually,  in 
good  vines,  the  three  start  about  equally  strong, 
and  no  difficulty  is  presented ;  but  when  it  is 
otherwise,  we  must  either  take  both  on  the 
same  side,  and  submit  to  a  little  present  defor- 
mity, or  we  must  endeavor  to  restore  the  equi- 
librium l3y  bending  the  strongest  cane  toward 
a  horizontal  position,  and  growing  the  weak 
one  upright.  In  a  large  vineyard  this  would 
involve  considerable  labor  and  skill,  and  the 
reader  may  determine  for  himself  what  he  will 
do  under  the  circumstances.  Having  selected 
the  two  canes,  they  should  be  tied  up  to  pre- 
vent their  accidental  loss.  These  canes  must  be 
tied  to  the  stake  from  time  to  time  during  the 
whole  season  of  growth.  One  bunch  of  fruit 
may  be  allowed  to  grow  o-n  strong  canes,  but 
the  vines,  on  the  whole,  will  be  better  if  all 
the  fruit  is  removed.  When  the  thallons  make 
their  appearance,  they  are  to  be  athallized  pre- 
cisely at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  directed 
for  the  first  year.     The  ends   of   both    canes 


American  Grape  Culture. 


should  also  be  pinclied  out  as  was  then  di- 
rected. The  whole  routine  of  training,  indeed, 
is  the  same  for  the  first  and 
second  years,  the  only  differ- 
ence being,  that  during  the 
second  year  we  have  two 
canes  instead  of  one. 

If  every  thing  has  gone  on 
nicely,  as  it  should,  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  when  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  we  shall 
have  a  vine  with  two  good 
canes,  like  that  in  Fig.  25. 
It  will  occasionally  happen 
that  a  vine  here  and  there 
will  be  weak,  and  not  able  to 
produce  two  good  canes.  In 
such  cases,  the  proper  course 
is  to  grow  only  one  cane  the 
second  year.  If,  however,  two 
are  grown,  they  will  be  too 
weak  to  lay  down  for  arms, 
and  they  must  therefore  be 
cut  back  to  two  eyes  each, 
and  only  two  canes  grown 
the  thii'd  year,  Nothing  will  or  can  be  gained 
by   attempting  to  keep  weak  vines  up  to  the 


Fig.  25. 


Training— First  and  Second  Years.      6d 


w 


>■• 


advanced  stage  of  growth  of  strong  ones.  It 
will  also  liappen  tliat  some  vines  will  make 
too  coarse  or  rank  a  o-rowtli.     When  this  rank 

o 

growth  takes  place,  the  wood  is  coarse  and 
spongy,  and  the  buds  that  are  chiefly  wanted' 
for  future  use  are  imperfectly  developed.  In 
such  cases  it  \\dll  be  well  to  let 
three  canes  grow  instead  of  two, 
which  will  have  the  effect  of 
preventing  this  grossness,  and 
improving  the  quality  of  the 
wood.  A  vine  grown  with  three 
canes  is  shown  in  JF^i(/.  26.  At 
the  time  of  pruning,  the  middle 
cane  is  cut  entirely  out  at  the 
cross  mark.  If  the  trellis  has 
been  put  up,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
lay  the  canes  down  horizontally 
about  the  iirst  of  August ;  it  is 
still  better  to  begin  to  bend  them 
to  a  horizontal  position  early  in 
the  season.  The  result  is  a  bet- 
ter develo2:)ment  of  the  buds 
Fig.  26.  "^^  near  the  stock  of  the  vine. 
Our  next  labor  will  consist  in  pruning,  and 
putting  down  the  vines  for  winter ;  but,  before 
doing  this,  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine 


70  American  Grape  Culture. 

wliat  particular  mode  of  training  shall  be 
adopted ;  for  our  pruning  now  must  give  shape 
to  this.  There  are  several  good  methods  of 
training  the  vine,  the  best  of  which  we  propose 
to  explain.  We  shall  begin  with  the  double 
Iwrizontal  arm  system,  since  a  good  knowledge 
of  that  will  pave  the  way  to  an  easy  under- 
standing of  the  rest.  Our  praning  at  the  close 
of  the  second  year  will  have  in  view  the  begin- 
ning of  the  arms.  We  say  the  beginning,  be- 
cause, if  we  should  form  or  lay  down  the  whole 
arm  at  one  time,  the  lower  buds,  or  those  near- 
est the  body  of  the  vine,  would  break  feebly, 
and  either  remain  weak,  or  disaj^pear  alto- 
gether. The  vital  force,  or  action,  tends  so 
strongly  to  the  end  of  the  cane,  that  we  must 
in  some  way  control  it,  in  order*  to  till  up  the 
entire  length  of  the  arm  with  fruitful  spurs. 
This  can  be  done  with  certainty  only  by  a  grad- 
ual extension  of  the  arm ;  but  even  then  the  arm 
must  not  be  extended  beyond  a  certain  length, 
or  the  vital  force  will  overcome  the  restraint  put 
upon  it,  and  defeat  our  purpose.  As  a  general 
rule,  arms  four  feet  long  should  not  be  in- 
creased more  than  one  thii'd  of  their  length  at 
a  time,  and  that  only  when  the  canes  are  good. 
We   will   suppose  our   vines    are   four  feet 


Training— First  and  Second  Years.      71 

apart  for  a  double  tier  of  arms  ;  each  vine  will 
tlieii  have  about  seven  feet  of  horizontal  arm,  or 
about  three  feet  six  inches  on  each  side  of  the 
stock.  In  this  case,  the  arms  may  be  laid 
down  from  a  thu-d  to  half  their  length,  or  from 
fourteen  to  twenty-one  inches.  There  will,  how- 
ever, be  here  and  there  canes  not  stout  enough 
to  lay  down  as  much  as  one  foot.  From  such 
vines  as  may  have  three  canes,  the  middle  one 
must  be  cut  through  the  old  wood  below  the 
cross  mark  in  Fig.  26,  which  will  make  the 
vine  like  Fig.  25 ;  the  canes  must  be  cut  at  A, 
or  from  fourteen  to  twenty  inches  long.  The 
canes  are  now  to  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  tied  there,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27.    The 


Fig.  2T. 


dotted  lines  show  where  the  upright  canes  will 
grow  from  the  upper  buds.  If  all  the  lower 
buds,  a,  are  rubbed  off,  the  upper  ones  will 
place  the  spurs  at  about  the  proper  distance 


^2  American  Grape  Culture. 

from  eacli  otlier,  except  in  a  few  kinds  making 
very  long  joints ;  in  these  it  may  be  desirable 
to  retain  botk  the  upper  and  the  lower  buds 
for  making  spurs.  The  canes  just  bent  down 
may  or  may  not  contain  the  exact  number 
of  buds  represented  in  the  figure;  that  will 
depend  partly  upon  the  kind  and  partly  upon 
circumstances.  The  spurs  should  be  from  six 
to  twelve  inches  apart,  according  to  the  kind 
of  vine.  The  smaller  distance  will  generally 
answer  for  the  Delaware,  Rebecca,  and  kinds 
of  similar  growth;  while  the  longer  distance 
will  suit  the  lona,  Allen's  Hybrid,  etc.  It 
may  be  reduced  to  a  rule,  thus :  the  distance 
between  the  spurs  must  be  determined  by 
the  habit  of  the  kind.  The  object  is,  to  have 
the  arms  of  about  equal  length,  the  same 
number  of  spurs  on  each  arm,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  the  spurs  just  sufficient  to  ac- 
commodate the  foliage.  The  reader  must  keep 
this  object  constantly  in  view  in  forming  the 
arms.  The  two  years'  growth  previous  to  the 
formation  of  the  arms  will  give  him  a  good 
idea  of  the  habit  of  the  kind ;  but  he  must 
make  proper  allowance  for  the  greater  vigor 
of  the  vine  during  these  two  years.  Fig.  27 
is  a  Delaware  vine,  and  the  portion  of  arm 
laid  down  is  pretty  nearly  two  feet  long. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

TRALNTNG ^THIRD,    FOURTH,   AND    FIFTH    YEARS. 

TJiird  Year. — We  will  suppose  tliat  the  vines 
have  been  wintered  as  heretofore  directed,  and 
proceed  with  the- training  for  the  third  year. 
The  upper  eyes  on  the  arms  in  Fig.  27  will  each 
produce  a  cane,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines, 
and  each  cane  will  set  two  or  three  bunches 
of  fruit.  Just  here  it  becomes  necessary  to 
decide  how  many  bunches  shall  be  left  to  ma- 
ture. The  temptation  to  leave  all  is  very  great, 
and  it  is  often  done,  to  the  great  and  perma- 
nent injury  of  the  vine ;  in  this  way,  indeed,  it 
is  sometimes  tasked  so  much  beyond  its  power, 
that  the  fruit  not  only  fails  to  ripen,  but  the 
leaves  fall  oif  prematurely,  the  roots  and  wood 
in  consequence  fail  to  ripen,  and  the  vine  often 
dies,  or  is  winter  killed.  It  is  not  necessary 
here  to  state  the  physiology  of  the  case,  or  to 
present  an  array  of  reasons ;  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  say,  that,  as  a  rule,  not  more  than  one 


74  American  Grape  Culture. 

buncli  to  eacli  slioot  should  be  left  this  year, 
and  on  weak  shoots  none  at  all.  A  very  strong 
cane,  however,  may  have  two  bunches. 

We  projjose  this  year  to  grow  a  certain  num- 
ber of  upright  canes  with  well-developed  buds 
at  the  base  for  spurs,  and  two  good  canes 
to  extend  the  arms.  The  cane  which  proceeds 
from  the  bud  on  the  end  of  the  arm  is  for  the 
extension  of  the  arm.  It  may  be  grown  at  an 
angle  of  about  forty -five  degrees,  or,  better  still, 
when  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  long,  it 
may  be  bent  toward  a  horizontal  position,  and 
tied  securely  to  the  trellis  from  time  to  time  as 
it  increases  in  length.  All  the  canes  intended 
for  the  extension  of  the  arms  must  be  athallized 
as  directed  for  the  first  year's  training.  The 
upright,  or  fruit-bearing  cane,  must  be  treated 
as  foUoAVS :  as  the  thallons  make  their  appear- 
ance, they  must  be  athallized,  and  the  operation 
repeated  two  or  three  times,  or  as  often  as  may 
be  necessary.  We  repeat  here  the  injunction, 
not  to  fail  in  doing  it  at  the  right  time.  When 
the  upright  cane  has  reached  a  length  of  about 
two  feet,  pinch  out  its  extreme  end,  and  no 
more. 

And  just  here  let  us  say  that  it  is  a  great  fal- 
lacy to  suppose  that  we  wish  to  check  the  force 


Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years.         'To 

of  tlie  vital  principle  ;  on  tlie  contrary,  we  be- 
lieve that  all  checks  are  injurious,  and  just  in 
proportion  to  their  violence.  Our  object  is  not 
to  check  action,  but  to  convert  it  all  to  use, 
with  as  little  loss  as  possible  ;  to  concentrate  it, 
in  short,  upon  those  parts  that  are  to  produce 
useful  results,  such  as  the  fruit  and  buds.  To 
check  the  growth  of  the  vine  at  this  time, 
would  be  like  spending  oui*  labor  and  skill  to 
collect  its  vital  forces,  and  then,  just  as  they 
were  ready  to  perform  their  allotted  office,  to 
take  the  readiest  means  to  destroy  them.  That 
summer  pruning,  or  pinching,  as  generally  per- 
formed in  the  vineyard,  does  check  the  vital 
force,  and  inflict  more  or  less  injury,  there  can 
be  no  doubt;  but  if  summer  pruning  is  per- 
formed at  the  right  time,  and  in  a  proper  man- 
ner, it  is  an  exceedingly  useful  operation,  and 
almost  indispensable  to  the  production  of  the 
best  results.  If  we  should  allow  this  cane  to 
grow  five  or  six  feet  long,  and  then  cut  or  break 
off  two  or  three  feet  of  it,  as  is  commonly  done, 
we  should  undoubtedly  do  great  violence  to 
the  vitality  of  the  vine ;  but  if  we  pinch  out  the 
extreme  end,  the  loss  amounts  to  almost  noth- 
ing. There  is  no  inteiTuption  to  the  action  of 
the  plant ;  the  vital  force  that  would  have  gone 


76  American  Grape  Culture. 

to  the  extension  of  tlie  cane  finds  more  useful 
employment  in  improving  the  quality  and  size 
of  the  fruit,  developing  and  maturing  the  fi'uit 
buds,  and  increasing  the  size  and  hardihood  of 
the  leaves.  Nothing  has  been  lost,  but  very 
much  gained. 

In  course  of  time  the  buds  at  the  ends  of  the 
canes  that  have  been  pinched  vrill  begin  to  grow. 
The  young  canes  proceeding  from  these  end 
buds  may  be  allowed  to  grow  from  six  inches  to 
a  foot  long,  when  their  ends  must  be  pinched 
out.  The  operation  may  be  repeated  even  a 
third  time  with  advantage.  Practice  will  in  no 
long  time  give  considerable  expertness  in  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  summer  treatment  of  the 
vine,  and  its  labor  will  thus  be  considerably  re- 
duced. 

Fig.  28  is  a  beautiful  and  truthful  represen- 
tation of  an  Israella  vine  in  the  third  year 
of  its  growth,  taken  from  life.  Some  of  the 
lower  leaves  have  been  removed  to  show  the 
fruit,  of  which  there  is  rather  more  than  a  vine 
at  this  age  should  generally  bear.  The  thallons 
are  omitted,  so  as  to  give  a  better  idea  of  the 
character  of  the  leaves.  The  fi'uit  canes  are 
longer  than  they  should  be,  but  the  wood  was 
wanted  for  a  special  purpose.     The  pinching  of 


78  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  fruit  canes  is  not  shown  for  want  of  room 
on  the  page. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  we  shall  have  a  vine 
with  several  upright  fruit  canes,  and  two  canes 
at  the  ends  of  the  aiTQS  for  their  extension. 
The  arms,  as  we  have  already  said,  should  be 
extended  very  gradually.  The  second  and  sub- 
sequent extensions  should  be  even  more  gradual 
than  the  iirst ;  if  the  arms  are  carried  out  too 
rapidly,  there  is  danger  of  weakening  the  ac- 
tion of  the  part  first  laid  down.  As  a  general 
rule,  one  foot  will  be  enough  for  the  annual  ex- 
tension of  the  arms.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
more ;  in  others  less.  We  have  already  pretty 
clearly  indicated  the  nature  of  both  these 
cases.  We  shall  suppose  that  about  one  foot  is 
to  be  added  to  each  arm.  The  end  canes  must 
then,  of  course,  be  cut  to  the  required  length. 
The  upright  canes  now  reniain  to  be  j^runed. 
These  we  propose  to  convert  into  spurs.  This 
is  done  by  cutting  these  canes  down  to  two  eyes 
each.     I^i(/.    29    shows  the  appearance  of  the 


Fig.  29. 


vine  when  pruned  and  the  addition  made  to 
the  arms,  except  that  the  addition  in  the  cut  is 


Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years 


79 


longer  than  it  should  be.  .  The  letter  h  shows 
the  point  at  which  the  addition  was  made  to 
the  arm  ;  and  the  letter  a  the  buds  on  the  un- 
der side  which  are  to  be  rubbed  oiF. 

To  make  the  matter  plainer,  we  introduce 
Fig.  30,  a  piece  of  an  arm,  with  its  cane,  on  a 
full  scale,  a  is  the  point 
at  which  the  cane  is  cut  to 
make  the  spur  ;  e  andy  are 
the  two  principal  or  pri- 
maiy  buds ;  h  and  G  are 
base  buds,  so  called  be- 
cause situated  at  the  base 
of  the  cane.  These  base 
buds  vary  greatly  in  num- 
ber, and  in  some  cases  are 
not  apparent.  All  the  spurs  on  the  arm  are 
sometimes  formed  to  produce  two  canes,  and 
sometimes  only  one ;  at  others,  again,  these  two 
kinds  of  spurs  alternate.  If  we  wish  to  grow 
two  canes,  the  cut  is  made  at  a  •  if  only  one, 
the  cut  is  made  about  half  an  inch  above  the 
bud  f.  To  save  repetition,  we  will  alternate 
the  spurs  in  the  vine  we  are  growing,  pruning 
every  other  one  for  two  canes ;  the  canes,  there- 
fore, will  be  cut  alternately  at  a  and  about  half 
an  inch  above  f.     We  shall  thus  illustrate  the 


80  American  Grape  Culture. 

double  and  single  spurs  at  one  and  tlie  same 
time.  Tlie  vines  having  been  pruned,  will  now 
be  put  down  and  covered  for  the  winter. 

Fow'tlh  Year. — We  have  now  a  vine  with 
one  portion  of  the  arms  spurred,  and  another 
portion  newly  added.  Let  us  first  follow  out 
the  spurs  with  two  buds.  The  buds  e  and/,  in 
Fig.  30,  will  each  produce  a  cane,  and  each  cane 
will  set  two  or  more  bunches  of  fruit.  That 
from  e  may  be  allowed  to  mature  two  bunches 
of  fruit ;  the  cane  from/  should  not  be  allowed 
to  bear  any,  all  its  strength  being  reserved  for 
fruit  the  follomng  year.  The  base  buds  h  and 
G  must  be  rubbed  ojff.  They  would  have  been 
very  valuable,  however,  if  the  buds  above  them 
had  been  accidentally  lost.  We  could,  indeed, 
have  pruned  this  cane  just  above  the  bud  /, 
and  taken  the  lower  cane  from  one  of  the  base 
buds ;  they  are  not  always  strong  enough, 
however,  to  be  depended  upon ;  but  when  they 
are,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  use  them,  as  the  spur 
will  then  be  a  little  shorter.  We  have  reserved 
the  lower  cane  for  next  year's  fi'uit  spur,  not 
only  because  it  is  best  situated  for  this  purpose, 
but  also  because  the  upper  one  will  produce  the 
largest  and  best  bunches  of  grapes.  If  the 
upper  cane  were  reserved  for  next  year's  fruit, 


Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years.        81 

the  spur  would  soon  become  inconveniently 
long. 

When  the  m'owins:  canes  have  reached  the 
length  of  some  two  feet,  pinch  out  the  extreme 
end,  as  above  directed.  Repeat  the  operation 
when  the  additional  or  new  growth  has  reached 
the  leno"th  of  six  inches  to  a  foot ;  and  still  a 
third  time,  if  the  action  is  very  strong.  Watch 
the  appearance  of  the  thallons,  and  athallize 
them  at  the  proper  moment.  It  will  be  under- 
stood that  these  directions  apply  to  all  the 
spurs  having  two  canes.  The  treatment  of  the 
spurs  having  single  canes  is  not  materially  dif- 
ferent. These  may  carry  two  bunches  of  fruit ; 
when  the  canes  have  grown  about  two  feet 
long,  the  ends  must  be  pinched  out,  and  the 
operation  rej^eated,  in  all  respects,  as  above. 
Athallage  must  likewise  be  attended  to  as 
above.  This  will  complete  the  treatment  of  the 
spurs.  Fig.  31  represents  a  portion  of  an  old 
arm  with  its  spurs,  and  the  new  canes  growing 
on  them.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  truthful  portrait, 
taken  from  life.  In  this  example,  the  canes  and 
thallons  are  ready  for  the  operations  of  pinch- 
ing and  athallage. 

In  regard  to  the  new  portion  of  arm  laid 
down,  the   cane   from  the   end  bud  must  be 

6 


82 


American  Grape  Culture. 


grown  at  an  angle  for  further  extension  of  tlie 
arm  next  year.  Tlie  buds  on  tlie  lower  side 
must  be  rubbed  off;  and  the  canes  from  those 
on  the  upper  side  are  to  be  grown  npright  for 
future  spurs.  The  ends  are  to  be  pinched  out 
at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  before  directed. 
Athallage,  also,  must   be   promptly  and  faith- 


Fig.  31. 


fully  attended  to.  We  have  said  nothing 
about  tying  up ;  but  it  will  be  understood  that 
the  canes  are  to  be  tied  as  they  lengthen  ;  some 
care  must  be  used,  however,  that   the  strings 


Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years. 


83 


do  not  cut  and  injure  the  canes :  they  should 
always  be^oose. 

These  details  will  carry  us  through  the  sea- 
son, up  to  the  period  of  pruning.  In  the  best 
vines  the  arms  may  now  be  completed.  Lay 
down  the  end  cane,  therefore,  and  cut  it  so  that 
there  shall  l)e  an  interval  of  about  a  foot  be- 
tween the  ends  of  the  arms  of  adjoining  vines. 
If  the  ends  of  the  arms  should  meet,  there 
would  be  no  space  for  training  the  last  fruit 
canes.  Passing  along  to  the  portion  of  arm 
laid  down  last  fall,  the  canes  must  be  pruned 


to  one  and  two  eyes  alternately,  in  the  manner 
before  described.      Next  will  come  the  spurs. 


84 


American  Grape  Culture. 


An  example  of  tliose  having  one  cane  is  sliown 
in  Fig.  32.  The  pruning  consists  in  cutting  off 
the  cane  just  above  the  bud  I.  The  stump  of 
the  old  spur  may  be  cut  at  «,  a.  All  the  spurs 
with  single  canes  are  to  be  pruned  in  this  man- 
ner. A  spur  having  two  canes  is  shown  in  Fig. 
33,  This  must  be  pruned  by  first  cutting  the 
left-hand  cane  entirely  away  at  the  mark  a^  the 


Fig.  33. 

right-hand  cane  is  then  cut  at  the  mark  u, 
which  leaves  two  ]3uds  for  the  two  new  canes. 
The  reader  will  observe  that  two  simple  cuts 
complete  the  pruning  even  for  a  spur  of  two 
canes,  and  will  no  doubt  be  impressed  by  the 
fact,  that  system  not  only  simplifies  labor,  but 
divests  it  of  much  of  the  forbiddino:  hardness 


Thikd,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years.         85 

that  results  from  the  constant  exercise  of  per- 
plexing thoughts  where  system  is  not  ob- 
served. Our  vine  is  novr  ready  to  be  laid 
down  for  the  winter. 

Fifth  Year. — With  our  good  vine,  we  shall 
this  year  fully  establish  the  arms  and  complete 
the  system  of  training.  The  arms  are  now  all 
furnished  with  fruit  spurs,  except  the  small 
piece  at  the  ends  just  laid  down.  The  training 
is  now  only  an  extended  repetition  of  the  rou- 
tine pursued  last  year.  Beginning  at  the  end 
of  the  arms,  we  must  rub  off  the  lower  buds 
from  the  part  last  laid  down ;  the  upper  buds 
will  produce  the  usual  canes  for  fruit  spurs. 
These  canes  may  carry  one  bunch  of  fruit 
each ;  the  ends  must  be  pinched  out,  and  the 
thallons  athallized,  as  heretofore.  The  remain- 
der of  the  arm  is  furnished  with  spurs,  which 
are  to  be  treated  precisely  as  was  done  last 
year.  The  canes  growing  from  these  spurs 
(except  the  lower  cane,  where  there  are  two) 
may  now  carry  two  bunches  of  fruit.  If, 
however,  there  should  be  any  weak  ones,  the 
bunches  must  be  reduced,  or  removed  entirely. 
The  reader  must  learn  to  exercise  his  judgment 
in'  regard  to  this  and  other  matters  that  must 
necessarily  vary  somewhat  in  their  treatment. 


86 


American  Grape  Culture. 


as  tliey  may  be  affected  by  circumstances.  If 
every  thiug  lias  gone  on  favorably,  at  tlie  end 
of  tlie  fifth,  year  we  shall  have  a  perfect  speci- 
men of  double  horizontal  arm  training.  The 
pruning  may  now  be  done  as  directed  last  year, 
and  the  vine  laid  down  for  the  winter. 

Fig.   34  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  appear- 


Fig.  34 

ance  of  the  vine  at  this  time,  except  that  the 
fruit  canes  are  all  single,  whereas  we  have  made 
part  of  them  double.  It  will  be  observed,  too, 
at  a,  that  a  bud  has  "  missed,"  and  its  place  been 
supplied  by  a  cane  from  a  bud  beneath.  This 
and  other  methods  of  replacing  spurs  will  be 
described  elsewhere. 

Double  Horizontal  Arms,  witli  two  Tiers. — 
We  have  alluded  to  the  double  horizontal  arm 
system  with  two  tiers  of  arms,  one  above  the 
other.  This  is  formed  as  follows :  in  pruning 
at  the  end  of  the  first  yeai*,  every  other  vine  is 


Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Years.         87 

cut  to  the  three  lowest  eyes,  as  described  at  the 
time.  The  intermediate  vines  are  pruned  about 
three  feet  six  inches  long,  the  canes  from  the 
two  upper  eyes  being  selected  to  form  the  arms 
for  the  upper  tier.  All  the  other  buds  are  to 
be  rubbed  off.  It  will  sometimes  happen  that 
a  vine  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  grow  two 
canes  at  this  height.  In  that  case  it  must  be 
cut  lower 'for  the  canes,  or  even  cut  to  three 
eyes,   and    another    year    taken    to    grow    a 


Fig.  35. 


cane  that  will  be  stout  enough.  There  should 
be  no  hesitation  in  pursuing  this  course.  With 
the  exceptions  here  noted,  the  training  is  in  all 
respects  like  that  for  a  single  tier  of  arms. 
Fig.  35  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  system  when 


88  American  Grape  Culture. 

complete,  except  that  the  arms  are  too  short  for 
our  description.  In  this  figure  the  spurs  are 
shown  as  carrying  alternately  one  and  two 
canes.  The  end  vines  must  have  only  one  arm 
each,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  trellis,  as  shown  in 
the  engraving.  The  single  arms  will  be  on  the 
upper  or  lower  tier,  according  to  the  number  of 
vines  in  the  row.  It  is  better  to  have  both  the 
single  arms  on  the  upper  tier,  where  it  can  con- 
veniently be  done.  The  trellis  for  this  system 
should  be  six  to  seven  feet  high  from  the 
ground.  The  first  tier  of  arms  should  be  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground, 
and  the  second  tier  midway  between  the  first 
tier  and  the  top  of  the  trellis.  The  interme- 
diate spaces  should  be  filled  by  two  or  three 
rows  of  wire.  The  manner  of  making  a  trellis 
will  be  described  hereafter. 


CHAPTER  Vni. 

TRAINTtfO — GUYOT GTIYOT     IMPROVED UPRIGHT 

STOCK     WITH     ALTERNATE     SPURS BOW    SYS- 
TEM  THE   JURA. 

System  of  Guyot. — Inventions  are  sometimes 
brilliant,  and  nearly  perfect  at  tlie  moment  of 
leaving  the  brain ;  but  often  they  result  from 
the  long-continued  study  of  rude  examples  of 
the  principle  involved,  and  are  only  made  per- 
fect by  gradual  improvements  ;  and  the  transi- 
tions are  so  simple  and  natural  that  we  wonder 
they  were  not  made  before.  The  plan  advo- 
cated by  Dr.  Guyot  seems  to  be  a  case  of 
this  kind.  Fig.  36  may  be  taken  as  one  of 
its  original  forms.  It  is  an  old  one,  and  con- 
sists in  taking,  at  the  beginning,  a  fruit  cane 
from  a  bud  on  an  upright  stock,  and  bending  it 
in  a  curve  to  the  ground,  where  the  end  is  se- 
cured. This  cane  is  renewed  each  year.  The 
whole  arrangement  is  rude,  the  vine  having  no 


90 


American  Grape  Culture. 


support ;  ill  fact,  it  is  left  to  take  care  of  itself. 


Fig.  36. 


The  attentive  observer,  however,  could  not  fail 
to  see  how  evenly  the  bending  of  the  cane  set 


Fig.  a; 


Training — System  of  Guyot. 


91 


tlie  fruit  along  its  whole  length  ;  cand  this  nat- 
urally led  to  the  next  step  in  advance,  that  of 
giving  some  kind  of  support  to  the  vine,  while 
substantially  the  same  mode  of  training  was 
observed.  (See  Fig.  37.)  To  save  expense,  no 
doubt,  three  vines  were  planted  to  one  stake ; 


(clearly  a  mistake ;)  but  an  improvement  was 
made  in  adding  a  spur  for  renewal,  instead  of 
appropriating  the  cane  nearest  the  stock. 

A  still  further  improvement  in  time  follow- 
ed, as  shown  in  Fig.  38.  Here  the  vines  are 
supported   by  stakes   and  wire,  and   only  one 


92 


American  Grape  Culture. 


vine  planted  at  th€  stake.  System  and  order 
have  now  made  tlieir  appearance  in  the  vine- 
yard ;  let  us  hope,  to  abide  there ;  for  it  is 
a  good  place  for  them.  In  the  engraving,  the 
end  of  the  fruit  cane  has  been  "  layered "  to 
make  a  new  vine ;  a  practice  hurtful  to  the 
bearing  vine,  and  not  to  be  commended  in 
ordinary  circumstances.  Yet  another  step  for- 
ward, and  we  have  the  plan  of  Dr.  Guyot,  pro- 
perly so  called,  into  which  he  has  introduced 
the  greatest  degree  of  precision  of  which  the 
case  seems  to  be  susceptible,  in  so  training  the 
vines  on  a  wire  trellis  as  to  employ  a  system 


Fig.  39. 


Training — System  of  Guyot. 


93 


of  movable  shelters,  by  which   he   claims   to 
have  secm-ed  such  a  degree  of  certainty,  as  re- 


Fig.  40. 


gards  both  the  excellence  and  abundance  of  the 
crops,  as  to  place  them  beyond  the  fear  of  fail- 


|^!-^—^^[^^3-.^^ 


\ 


t 


J 


\     I 


94 


American  Grape  Culture, 


lire.  The  statistics  which  he  presents,  as  the 
results  of  trials  continued  during  a  series  of 
years,  and  on  a  large  scale,  would  seem  to  war- 
rant his  conclusions.  The  system  of  Dr.  Guyot 
may  be  understood  in  a  good  measure  from  an 
Inspection  of  Figs.  39-44.     He  has  shelters  to 


v»l,Sj,s  \\s\NSS\\\\\\<\v-\'^Nt^\-«v^\J»N^-^-«$i!^.N  v\-Si^>^^>i^^\-^!i( 


Fig  42, 


be  used  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  which 
would  require  quite  a  number  of  engravings  to 
dlustrate  fully.  Dr.  Grant,  however,  just  be- 
fore the  appearance  of  Guyot's  w^ork,  suggested 


Fig.  43. 


Training — System  of  Guyot. 


95 


a  form  of  shelter  Laving  considerable  resem- 
blance to  his,  and  whicli  is  shown  in  Figs. 
43,  44.  On  the  right,  in  Fig.  43,  the  vine  is 
covered  for  the  winter.  In  the  spring  the  soil 
is  removed  from  the  vine,  and  placet!  as  seen 
on  the  left.  The  bottom  of  the  shelter  rests  on 
the  raised  earth,  and  is  supported  just  above  the 
middle  by  wooden  pins  on  the  trellis.  A  front 
view  is  given  in  Fig,   44.     A  vineyard   shel- 


Fig.  44. 


tered  in  this  way  is  almost  as  well  protected  as 
if  the  vines  were  under  glass,  and  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  with  ho^v  much  certainty  the  crop 
may  be  secured.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
this  system  of  shelter  possesses  great  advanta- 
ges for  many  portions  of  our  own  country,  lia- 
ble as  we  are  to  sudden  and  sharp  changes  of 
weather ;  but  there  are  few,  perhaps,  "vvho  will 
for  some  time  jQt  be  willing  to  incur  the  addi- 
tional labor  and  expense.      We  may  remark 


96 


American  Grape  Culture. 


that  it  is  the  system  of  Giiyot  without  the 
shelter  that  is  practiced  among  us.  In  this 
system,  also,  in  its  earli- 
est forms,  may  be  seen  the 
germ  of  the  horizontal  arm, 
which  is  the  horizontal  re- 
newal made  permanent,  and 
in  that  respect  an  improve- 
ment, especially  where  excel- 
lence of  fruit  is  concerned. 

We  propose  now  to  de- 
scribe the  training  of  Dr. 
Guyot.  This,  for  the  first 
two  years,  is  like  that  al- 
ready described  for  horizon- 
tal arms,  and  need  not,  there- 
fore, be  detailed  here.  At 
the  end  of  the  second  year 
we  have  two  upright  canes, 
as  in  Fig.  45.  The  cane  on 
the  left  must  be  cut  at  the 
two  lowest  buds,  to  form  a 
spur ;  and  that  on  the  right 
at  the  mark  Jij  it  should 
not,  however,  this  year  be 
^'^'  '^'''  more   than    two   feet    long. 

The  cane  on  the  right  is  for  bearing  fi-uit,  and 


Training — System  of  Guyot. 


97 


must  be  bent  to  a  liorizontal  position,  as  shown 
in  Fig,  4G.  From  tlie  spur  on  the  left  two 
canes  must  be  grown.  The  upper  cane  may 
cany  one  bunch  of  fruit  this  year ;  the  lower 
one,  none.  The  thallons  on  both  these  canes 
must  be  athallized  as  directed  for  the  horizon- 
tal system.  When  about  five  feet  high,  pinch 
out  the  ends  of  both  canes,  and  repeat  the  op- 


rig.  46. 


eration,  in  the  manner  before  described.  There 
is  a  necessity  for  economizing  action  at  all 
points ;  w^e  want  especially  to  ripen  the  lower 
upright  cane  in  the  most  perfect  mannei",  as  w^e 
expect  it  to  carry  a  large  crop  of  fruit  next 
year.  The  two  feet  of  cane  that  was  laid 
down  horizontally  must  have  all  the  lower  buds 
rubbed  off;  the  canes  from  the  upper  ones  may 
carry  one  bunch  of  fruit  each.  More  would  be 
an  injury  to  the  vine  at  this  time.     When  these 


98  American  Grape  Culture. 

fruit  canes  are  about  two  feet  long,  pinch  out 
the  extreme  end,  as  before  directed  for  fruit 
canes.  The  thallons  must  also  be  treated  in  the 
usual  manner. 

In  the  fall,  the  j^runing  will  be  as  follows : 
the  arm  on  the  right,  that  has  borne  fruit,  must 
be  cut  entirely  away ;  the  lower  cane  on  the 
spur  must  then  be  cut  about  four  feet  long,  and 
laid  down  horizontally,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
arm  just  cut  away ;  the  upper  cane  must  be  cut 
to  the  two  lowest  buds,  for  producing  two  more 
upright  canes.  The  reader  will  now  doubtless 
perceive  a  necessity  for  keeping  this  spur  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  stock,  since  it  must  an- 
nually furnish  a  cane  for  laying  down. 

Fourth  Year. — This  system  may  now  be  con- 
sidered as  complete.  The  treatment  this  year 
is  only  a  repetition  of  that  of  last  year,  includ- 
ing pinching  and  athallage.  The  fruit  canes 
may  now  be  allowed  to  carry  two  bunches 
each,  if  the  vine  is  in  good  healthy  condition. 
Tlie  upper  cane  on  the  spur  may  also  carry  two 
bunches,  and  none  of  the  canes,  as  a  general 
rule,  should  exceed  this  numl^er.  The  lower 
cane  on  the  spur  should  never  be  allowed  to 
carry  fruit.  As  the  vine  gets  older,  three  canes 
may  be  allowed   to   grow  from  the    spur,  but 


Training — System  .  of  Guyot. 


99 


two  are  generally  mucli  better.  The  pruning 
hereafter  will  be  the  same  as  last  year :  the 
arm  is  cut  off,  the  lower  cane  on  the  spur  cut 
to  four  feet  and  laid  down,  and  the  upper  cane 
cut  to  the  two  lowest  buds  for  a  spur.  Fi^, 
47  shows  an  old  vine  in  fruit  on  Guyot's  plan. 


Fig.  47. 

There  are  three  canes  from  the  spur,  however, 
and  too  much  fruit,  at  least  for  ordinary  vines. 
Two  bunches  are  quite  enough. 

Giiyot^s  Plan  Improved. — We  say  improved, 
because,  in  our  hands,  it  has  pelded  better 
results.  The  improvement  consists  chiefly  in 
making  the  sumi  permanent,  instead  of  renewing 
it  annually,  and  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Grant. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  systems  for  the  vineyard. 


100  American  Grape  Culture. 

After  what  has  been  said  above,  the  manner 
of  doing  this  will  be  easily  understood.     There 
is  no  difference  in  the  plan  uj)  to  the  thii'd 
year,  when  the  cane  is  laid  down  for  the  arm. 
The    sjDur   is   already   pruned    to    two    buds. 
The  portion  of  arm  laid  down,  however,  should 
be   only  about  fourteen  inches  long,  or  about 
one  third  the  length  of  the  arm  when  complete. 
Let  us  first  look  after  the  renewal  spur.    If  the 
base  buds  break  nicely,  select  two  of  them  in 
preference  to  the  buds  left  above  them,  which 
should  then  be  rubbed  off.     The  object  is  to 
get  the  spur  as  close  as  possible  to  the  stock. 
The  arm  is  treated  as  follows :  the  cane  from 
the  end  bud  is  to  be  grown  at  an  angle  for  the 
extension  of  the  arm,  and  should  be  pinched 
when  about  four  feet  long.     The  canes  from  the 
other  buds  must  be  grown  upright,  and  may 
carry  one  bunch  of  fruit  each.     "When  these 
canes  are  about  two  feet  long,  pinch  out  the 
end,  and  otherwise  treat  them  as  directed  when 
growing  horizontal  arms.     The  thallons  must 
have  proper  attention,  and  at  the  right  time. 
The  treatment  here,  indeed,  is  just  the  same  as 
was  given  for  fruit  canes  on  a  former  page,  and 
v/e  may  therefore  pass  on  to  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son, and  explain  how  the  vine  is  to  be  pruned. 


Training — System  of  Guyot.  101 

The  upper  cane  on  the  renewal  spur  is  to  be  cut 
off  at  c,  {Fig-  48,)  the  cut  being  made  through 
the  old  wood ;  the  lower  cane  is  to  be  cut  at  d^ 
or  the  two  lowest  buds.  The  cane  at  the  end  of 
the  arm  is  to  be  cut  about  fourteen  inches  long, 
and  laid  down  for  the  extension  of  the  arm. 
The  upright  fruit  canes  are  to  be  cut  about  an 
inch  above  the  lowest  bud ;  or,  to  prevent  ac- 
cidental loss,  cut  above  the  second  bud,  and  if 
every  thing  is  safe  in  the  spring,  rub  the  upper 
one  off. 

The  next  year  two  canes  are  to  be  grown 
from  the  renewal  spur,  and  may  carry  two 
bunches  of  fruit  each.  The  cane  from  the  bud 
at  the  end  of  the  arm  must  be  grown  horizon- 
tally for  the  extension  and  completion  of  the 
arm.  The  buds  must  be  removed  from  the 
under  side  of  the  portion  of  cane  just  laid 
down,  and  the  canes  from  the  upper  buds 
grown  upright.  These  canes  may  carry  one 
bunch  of  fruit  each.  The  rest  of  the  arm  is 
spurred ;  a  cane  must  be  grown  from  the  lowest 
bud  on  each  spur,  and  may  carry  two  bunches 
of  fruit  each.  The  pinching,  athallage,  and 
general  treatment  will  be  like  that  of  last  year. 
Where  the  spurs  are  not  too  close  together, 
they  should  have  two  canes,  the  formation  and 


102 


American  Grape  Culture. 


treatment  .of  whicli  tlie  reader  already  under- 
stands. 

The  next  pruning  will  be  as  follows:  tlie 
upper  cane  must  be  cut  entirely  away  from  the 
renewal  spur  by  cutting  through  the  old  wood, 
and  the  lower  cane  cut  at  the  two  lowest  buds. 
Passing  to  the  arm,  cut  all  the  canes  on  the 
spurs  at  the  lowest  bud,  if  single  spurs  are 
adopted,  and  at  the  second  bud,  if  double  spurs. 
The  arm  is  now  laid  down  its  full  length,  and 


Fig.  48. 


the  system  is  complete.  The  pruning,  pinching, 
athallage,  etc.,  will  be  the  same  each  succeeding 
year.  The  spurs  may  hereafter  carry  two 
bunches  of  fruit,  but  more  than  this  will  not  be 
consistent  with  the  permanent  welfare  and  du- 
ration of  the  vine,  as  a  general  rule.  The  excep- 
tions to  the  rule  must  be  determined  by  the 


Traixing^— System  of  Guyot. 


103 


kind  of  vine  and  its  native  disposition  to  bear. 
In  Fig.  48,  the  vine  on  the  left  shows  the  sys- 
tem of  Guyot ;  that  on  the  right,  Guyot's  sys- 
tem as  improved,  a  and  h  indicating  the  points 
where  the  arm  was  lengthened,  the  last  addition 
not  being  yet  spurred.  Fig.  49  shows  the  same 
vines  in  fruit  and  leaf 


Fig.  49. 

The  improved  Guyot  system  is  one  of  the 
best,  both  for  the  amateur  and  the  vineyard. 
Its  safety-valves  give  us  a  control  over  the  vine 
which  no  system  can  possess  w^ithout  them.  In 
practice  we  have  found  them  a  valuable  aid, 
and  in  that  light  they  are  regarded  by  those 
•who  have  adopted  them.     They  are  valuable  in 


Training— System  of  Guyot.  105 

other  respects  when  understood,  an  important 
one  being  the  facility  they  afford  for  replacing 
an  arm  without  loss  of  fruit.  The  permanent 
arm,  in  place  of  the  annual  renewal,  yields  a 
better  quality  of  fi'uit,  which  should  be  con- 
sidered of  some  importance,  whether  for  wine 
or  the  table. 

In  this  connection  we  introduce  Figs.  50,  51, 
the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  portraits  of  the 
kind  ever  presented  to  the  public.  The  vine  on 
the  left  is  t\iQ  lona;  that  on  the  right  is  the 
Delaware,  the  characteristics  of  each  being  finely 
shown.  The  lower  leaves  have  been  removed 
from  one  cane  of  each,  to  show  the  fruit. 

This  system  may  be  used  with  a  double  tier 
of  arms,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.  In  this  case,  the 
vines  must  be  planted  at  equal  distances,  and 
the  stocks  buried  and  lirought  up  together  as 
shown  by  the  shaded  lines  in  Fig.  53,  which  is 
an  example  of  the  renewal  system,  which  the 
reader  can  study  till  we  find  time  to  explain  it. 

Upriglit  Stoch  with  Alternate  Spurs. — This 
•is  a  neat  and  pretty  mode  of  growing  the 
vine  for  the  amateur  and  the  garden.  It  has 
a  look  of  simplicity  about  it  which  will 
commend  it  to  many.  The  reader  perhaps 
thinks     he    has    only    to   grow    an    upright 


106 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Training — Upright  Stock.  107 

cane,  cut  off  the  top,  and  tlie  thing  is  done. 
We  shall  probably  undeceive  him  when  we 
state,  that  to  grow  the  vine  successfully  in 
this  way  is  a  rather  tedious  process,  re- 
quiring several  years  for  its  completion.  The 
form  is  i)retty,  and  it  presents  a  good  example 
of  how  subservient  we  can  make  the  vine 
to  our  purpose.  If  we  should  form  it  from 
a  cane  of  one  year's  growth,  it  would  soon 
become  bare  at  the  bottom,  yielding  its  fruit 
only  at  the  top,  and  giving  us  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  to  control  it ;  in  short,  it  could  not 
be  done.  We  have  elsewhere  explained  that 
the  action  of  the  vine  tends  strongly  to  the 
top.  The  position  of  the  vine  in  this  case 
strongly  favors  this  tendency,  and  it  is  our 
purpose  now  to  show  how  it  may  be  measur- 
ably overcome  or  held  in  check. 

We  shall  take  a  vine  that  has  been  planted 
and  grown  one  year,  as  described  elsewhere. 
If  the  cane  is  not  strong,  it  must  be  cut  to  the 
lowest  bud,  and  grown  another  year ;  for  we 
shall  have  poor  success  here  without  a  good 
cane.  The  cane  is  to  be  cut  about  two  feet 
long,  and  tied  to  a  stake.  From  the  end  bud 
a  cane  must  be  grown  for  extending  the  stock. 
The  next  bud  below  this  must  be  selected  for 


108 


AmEKICAN   GrRAPE  CULTURE. 


Training— Upright  Stock.  109 

a  fruit  cane,  and  gYo\m  at  an  angle.  Six  inches 
below  this,  but  on  the  opposite  side,  select 
another  bud  for  the  same  purpose.  Select 
another  six  inches  below,  and  on  the  same  side 
as  the  first,  the  object  being  to  have  the  canes 
alternate  on  opposite  sides,  with  about  one  foot 
between  those  on  the  same  side.  All  the  other 
buds  are  rubbed  off.  The  lateral  or  side 
canes  may  carry  one  bunch  of  fruit  each.  The 
upright  cane  and  the  side  canes  must  be 
pinched  and  athallized  as  usual;  the  upright 
cane,  however,  must  not  be  pinched  till  it  has 
o-rown  about  four  feet.  In  the  fall,  the  upright 
cane  must  be  cut  about  fifteen  inches  long, 
which  will  allow  of  two  additional  side  canes, 
one  on  eacli  side.  The  side  canes  must  then  be 
spurred  by  cutting  them  off  at  the  two  lowest 
buds,  and  the  vine  is  ready  for  winter. 

The  next  season,  grow  an  upright  cane  from 
the  end  bud  for  extending  the  stock.  On  the 
newly  added  stock  select  two  buds  for  the  two 
new  spurs  on  opposite  sides.  From  the  spurs 
grow  t^vo  canes,  using  a  base  bud  wherever  it  is 
strong  enough.  The  upper  canes  from  the  spurs 
may  carry  two  bunches  each,  and  the  two  new 
canes  one  bunch  each.  Pinching  and  athalliz- 
ing  must  be  attended  to  as  usual.     The  appear- 


110 


American  Grape  Culture. 


mice  of  the  vine  at  tliis  time  may  be  seen  in 
Mg.  54.    X  is  tlie  point  where  the  vine  was  cut 


Fig.  51 


at  planting;    and  A,  where  it  was  cut  at  the 


Fig.  65, 


112  American  Grape  Culture. 

eud  of  the  first  year.  The  pruning  will  be  as 
follows,  beginning  at  the  lowest  spur  on  the  left : 
the  upper  cane  is  to  be  cut  off  at  m  through 
the  old  wood,  and  the  lower  cane  cut  at  n,  or 
the  two  lowest  buds.  (The  spurs  on  this  vine, 
in  fact,  are  two  years  old,  and  the  stump  made 
by  last  year's  pruning  is  seen  at  r.)  All  the 
spurs  are  to  be  pruned  like  this  one.  The  two 
upper  canes  are  to  be  cut  to  the  two  lowest 
buds  for  spurs.  The  treatment  in  succeeding 
years  is  only  a  repetition  of  this.  The  stock 
may  be  extended  to  the  height  of  five  feet ;  if 
carried  much  beyond  this,  the  vine  soon  gives 
out  at  the  bottom.  With  a  stock  four  feet  high, 
like  that  in  Fig.  54,  the  vine  may  be  kept  in 
full  bearing  many  years.  When  fully  estab- 
lished, all  the  canes  may  carry  two  bunches 
each. 

Fig.  55  is  a  Delaware  vine  trained  in  this 
way,  engraved  from  a  photograph  taken  by 
Mr.  Morand  at  lona.  At  X  may  be  seen 
one  method  of  replacing  a  spur.  The  vine 
carried  just  the  number  of  bunches  seen, 
but  not  without  injury.  Fig.  56  is  the 
same  vine  in  leaf  Fig.  57  shows  how  this  sys- 
tem may  be  applied  for  covering  a  trellis  or 
wall  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high.     The  inter- 


vi*r''.rv^'>' "  ^ 


■;TCK_£F!QR.Ii:i 


Fig.  50. 


114  American  Grape  Culture. 

mediate  vines,  X,  are  grown  with  naked  stocks 
up  to  the  point  A,  and  thence  spurred  to  the 
top  of  the  trellis.  In  this  way  any  amount  of 
sm'face  may  be  covered. 

Tlie  Bow  System. — ^This  system,  as  practiced 
at  the  West,  was  introduced  by  German  emi- 
grants, and  in  Ohio  and  other  places  is  more 
or  less  common,  but  seems  now  to  be  giving 
way  to  other  and  better  plans.  Mgs.  58,  59, 
60  will  make  it  quite  plain  to  the  reader.  The 
first  year  one  good  cane  is  grown,  which  is  cut 
down  to  the  two  lowest  buds,  from  which  two 
canes  are  grown  the  following  year.  One  of 
these  canes  is  pruned  to  a  spur  with  three 
buds,  and  the  other  shortened  to  about  two 
feet,  as  shown  by  the  cross  marks  in  Fig.  58. 
The  cane  is  bent  and  tied  to  a  stake  as  seen  in 
Fig.  59.  Usually,  this  cane  is  allowed  to  fruit 
its  whole  length.  From  the  spur  three  canes 
are  taken,  which  are  also  allowed  to  fruit. 
The  appearance  of  the  vine  at  this  time  is 
shown  in  Fig.  60.  The  pruning  consists  in 
cutting  away  the  bow  or  bent  cane.  There 
are  three  upright  canes  left,  the  lowest  of 
which  should  be  cut  to  a  spur  of  three  buds, 
to  produce  three  new  canes.  Of  the  two  re- 
maining canes,  one  is  cut  off,  and  the  other  bent 


\     \     \     \^\     \.     \.    \Z3:S^ 


Fig.  57. 


116 


American  Grape  Culture. 


or   bowed,  and  tied  to   a   stake.     The   same 
treatment  follows  year  after  year. 


Fig.  58.  Fig.  59.  Fig.  60. 

Figs.  60  and  61  show  a  better  form  of  the 
bow  system.  In  this  the  two  canes,  at  the  close 
of  the  second  year,  are  both  cut  to  spurs,  each 
having  two  buds.  From  each  spur  two  canes 
are  grown,  and  fruited.  The  next  pruning  is 
as  follows :  the  lowest  cane  on  each  spur  is  cut 
to  two  buds  for  a  new  spur,  and  the  remaining 
canes  shortened  to  about  two  feet,  and  bent  as 
in  Fig.  61.     The  bows  are  fruited  their  whole 


Training — Bow  System. 


117 


length,  and  tlie  canes  from  the  spurs  are  allow- 
ed two  bunches  each.     The  appearance  of  the 


Fig.  61. 


vine  at  this  time  is  shown  in  Fig.  62.  Two 
courses  may  now  be  pursued :  first,  to  cut  off 
the  end  of   the  cane  h  at  the  lowest  point 


Fig.  62. 


118 


Americajt  Grape  Culture. 


where  it  is  tied  to  the  stake,  and  prune  the 
lateral  or  fruit  canes  into  spurs  of  one  bud 
each ;  in  which  case  the  cane  a  should  be  cut 
to  its  lowest  bud  for  a  single  cane,  to  be  treat- 
ed as  a  safety-valve.  Second,  (if  this  course  is 
pursued,  the  sj)urs  should  have  tivo  upright 
canes  instead  of  one,)  cut  the  cane  h  entii-ely 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


awa)^,  bow  one  of  the  upright  canes,  and  cut 
the  other  to  the  two  lowest  buds  for  a  spur. 

Figs.  63  and  64  are  examples  of  growing  the 
vine  from  spurs  on  low  stocks. 

A  little  study  of  Figs.  65  and  QQ  will  show 
how  they  may  easily  be  converted  into  the  bow, 
Guyot,  or  horizontal  arm  system. 

The  Jura  Plan. — ^This   is  very  simple,  and 


Training— Jura  Plan. 


lid 


will  afford  the  reader  a  good  subject  for  experi- 
ment as  well  as  amusement.  For  the  vineyard, 
too,  we  prefer  it  to  the  bow  system,  as  it  is  even 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  60. 


more  simple,  and  will  produce  better  fruit.  The 
vines  may  be  planted  three  or  four  feet  apart. 
An  inspection  of  Figs.  67,  68  will  make  the 
treatment  very  plain.  The  first  year  a  good  cane 
is  to  be  grown,  and  in  the  fall  cut  down  to 
about  two  feet.  The  second  year  four  finiit  canes 
are  to  be  grown,  as  shown  at  a,  b,  e,  d,  in  the 
vine  in  Fig.  67.  These  are  to  be  converted 
into  double  spurs  in  the  usual  way  at  the  next 
pruning,  and  the  system  is  complete.    The  pnin- 


120 


American  Grape  Culture. 


ing  thereafter  will  consist  in  cutting  away  the 
tipper  cane,  and  pruning  the  lower  cane  to  the 
two    lowest    buds.     The    stock    is   not   to   be 


Fig.  6T. 


lengthened.  This  plan  admits  of  a  variety  of 
modifications,  which  the  general  principles  we 
have  given  will  enable  the  reader  to  study  out 
for   himself 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TRAINING TIIOMEEY. 

Tliomery. — Notwitlistanding  all  that  lias 
been  said  and  written  about  the  Thomery, 
there  are  few  who  have  any  just  conception 
of  what  it  really  is.  There  has  been  a  failure' 
to  understand  its  details,  or  to  comprehend  it 
as  a  whole.  One  thinks  it  consists  in  growing- 
vines  in  successive  tiers,  one  above  the  other; 
another  supposes  that  it  is  some  peculiar 
manner  of  planting  the  vines ;  still  another  has 
an  idea  that  it  is  some  special  or  2-)eculiar  mode 
of  pruning,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum.  It  is 
simply  no  one  of  these,  but  all  of  them,  and 
more  besides.  The  Thomery,  in  brief,  consists 
mainly  of  a  happy  selection  and  combination 
of  the  best  features  of  prevalent  modes  of 
training,  and  their  successful  application  to 
overcome  local  difficulties  of  a  trying  nature. 
This  system  takes  its  name  from  a  little  village 


122  American  Grape  Culture. 

in  France,  called  Thomeiy,  where  the  system 
had  its  origin,  and  where  it  still  finds  its  best 
exem2)lification.  We  hope,  by  giving  an  illus- 
tration, to  make  the  system  understood.  In  all 
that  has  gone  before  we  have  relied  upon  our 
own  experience ;  we  shall  still  rely  upon  it 
here,  and  also  call  to  our  aid  some  of  the  best 
French  authors,  as  well  as  the  account  of  a 
friend  personally  cognizant  of  the  details  prac- 
ticed at  Thomery. 

To  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant  belonors  the  merit  of 
having  brought  the  Thomery  prominently  be- 
fore the  American  public.  It  was  he  who  first 
studied  and  mastered  it  as  a  system,  and  suc- 
cessfully worked  it  out  in  practice ;  and  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  he  has  furnished 
the  chief  part  of  the  material  for  nearly  all 
that  has  been  written  upon  the  subject  in  this 
country.  Candor  and  the  amenities  of  litera- 
ture demand  the  acknowledgment  of  this  much, 
and  we  do  it  most  cheerfully. 

This  method  of  training,  and  its  appliances, 
need  careful  study  j)reparatory  to  undertaking 
it.  No  part  of  it  is  obscure  or  difficult  of  execu- 
tion ;  but  inasmuch  as  it  is  an  extended  sys- 
tem, each  step  of  which,  in  its  progress  toward 
completion,  j^repares  the  way  for  the  next,  it 


Training — Thomery. 


123 


is  important  that  the  wliole  should  be  clearly 
seen  from  the  beginning.  The  success  and 
permanence  of  the  result  depend  upon  having 
each  step  well  taken. 

The  ground  should  be  prej)ared  in  the  best 
manner,  and  the  plants  be  uniformly  of  the 
best  quality.  When  plants  of  only  moder- 
ate quality  can  be  obtained,  they  may  be  im- 
proved by  planting  them  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  wall,  and  bringing 
them  to  it  by  one  or  more 
"  hedding-s^''  as  represented  in 
JFlg.  C9.  Each  bedding  will 
delay  the  beginning  of  train- 
ing one  year;  but,  if  well 
i'  1^^^  ^one,  will  secure  plants  of  the 
^^te?  requisite  character.  It  is  much 
better,   however,   to    be   pro- 


Fig.  69. 


vided  with  suitable  plants  at  the  beginning, 
and  avoid  the  delay.  Fig.  3,  p.  36,  represents 
a  vine  of  the  best  possible  character  and  qual- 
ity one  year  old.  Fig.  8,  p.  39,  represents  one 
of  the  best  quality  two  years  old.  These  may 
rank  as  nearly  equal  in  value  for  our  purpose. 

As  we  proceed,  each  vine  with  its  arms  is  sub- 
jected to  the  same  treatment  as  that  for  the  for- 
mation of  double  arms,  (j).  60,  et  s-eq.,  and  Fig. 


124  American  Grape  Culture. 

25,)  or  in  the  two-tier  system,  (p.  86,  and  Fig, 
35  ;)  but,  having  greater  regard  to  permanence, 
from  the  greater  disappointment  resulting 
from  any  degree  of  failui-e  in  the  present  case, 
we  proceed  rather  more  slowly  in  forming  and 
lengthening  the  arms.  While  that  is  in  prog- 
ress, more  regard  should  be  had  to  securing 
a  perfect  bearing  condition  than  to  getting  a 
great  quantity  of  fruit  early.  The  former  be- 
ing well  done,  the  latter  follows  in  due  course. 
Fig.  VO  is  drawn  from  life,  and  is  a  very  good 
representation  of  well-managed  Delawares  in 
process  of  formation,  only  the  stopping  of  the 
canes,  by  which  they  were  brought  to  the 
proper  length,  is  not  shown,  in  consequence  of 
the  small  scale  which  the  comprehensiveness 
of  the  engraving  required.  For  this,  see  Double 
and  Single  Arm  Systems^  pages  86  and  87. 

Althousfh  it  is  desirable  to  form  all  the 
arms  at  the  same  time  by  equal  stej^s,  it  is 
scarcely  to  be  expected.  Some  difference  of 
growth  will  take  place,  and  the  highest  arms 
in  the  system  will  ordinarily  require  one  year 
more  of  growth  of  stock  than  the  lowest, 
before  being  ready  for  the  first  laying  down. 
Thus  i>.  Fig.  70,  will  require  one  year  more 
than  ^,  for  the  formation  of  its  greater  length 


Training — Thomery. 


125 


126  American  Grape  Culture. 

of  stock.  In  this  matter  the  vigor  and  ability 
of  the  vines  must  regulate  the  rate  of  progress, 
according  to  the  directions  already  given.  The 
vines  with  longest  stock,  although  later  at 
the  beginning,  eventually  become  disposed  to 
the  most  vigor,  and  this  must  be  regulated, 
as  before  stated,  by  the  quantity  of  bearing, 
according  to  general  principles. 

Fig.  71  represents  that  part  of  the  Thomery 
system  that  is  the  most  immediately  related 
to  the  main  wall,  which  is  all  that  we  can  con- 
sider at  present,  leaving  the  full  exposition 
of  the  whole  system  for  another  occasion. 

This  suite  consists  of  iive  rows,  the  first  and 
most  important  one  of  which  we  have  just 
reviewed ;  but  the  first  row  here  differs  from 
that  in  having  only  four  instead  of  five  tiers 
of  arms,  and,  consequently,  allowing  one  fifth 
more  for  leno-th  of  cane  for  a  wall  of  the  same 
heio-ht.  This  should  be  at  least  ten  feet  from 
the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  cap. 

The  first  trellis  stands  about  twelve  inches 
from  the  wall,  and  the  vines  are  planted  two 
feet  apart  in  the  rows;  this,  it  will  be  seen, 
gives  eight  feet  to  be  occupied  by  the  arms  of 
each  vine,  the  arms  being  made  a  little  shorter 
than  the  space,  so  that  their  ends  may  not  touch. 


128  American  Grape  Culture. 

The  distance  between  tlie  tiers  of  arms  is 
about  two  feet,  affording  room  for  canes  of 
that  length. 

The  next  row  is  seven  feet  in  advance  of 
the  first,  and  the  plants  two  feet  aj^aii  in  the 
row,  as  before;  this  leaves  seven  and  a  half 
feet  space  for  the  arms-  of  each  vine,  with 
their  tiers.  The  next  row  stands  five  feet  in 
advance  of  the  last;  and  the  vines  being  set 
three  feet  apart,  gives  six  feet  in  length  for 
the  arms  of  each  vine.  Tlie  fourth  row  has 
the  vines  trained  on  a  different  plan.  See  Fig. 
45.  It  is  four  feet  in  advance  of  the  last,  and 
the  vines  are  set  three  feet  apart.  The  fifth 
row  is  three  feet  from  the  last,  and  is  trained 
on  the  single  arm  plan.  The  vines  in  this 
also  are  three  feet  apart.  This  might  with 
about  equal  propriety  have  been  mth  double 
arms  at  the  same  distance,  with  the  vines 
four  or  five  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

The  object  of  this  graduation,  wliich  has 
probably  been  already  anticipated  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  is  to  accommodate  the 
vines  to  the  •  lessening  influence  of  the  shelter 
as  the  distance  from  the  main  wall  increases. 

Fig.  72  was  taken  from  life  at  different 
periods,  to  represent  different  stages  of  prog- 


^^mm^u.] 


130  Americajst  Grape  Culture. 

ress  during  the  season  in  one  engraving.  A, 
B,  C,  and  F  represent  the  vines  as  they  ap- 
peared in  June  at  the  time  for  &st  pinching. 
D  re2:)resents  a  vine  at  the  first  maturity  of 
fruit,  on  which  all  of  the  proper  summer  op- 
erations have  been  well  2:»erformed.  Some  of 
the  leaves  have  been  taken  away  at  d^  to  show 
the  canes  and  the  fruit  as  it  is  borne  uniformly 
throughout  the  vine.  E  is  one  like  it  late  in 
the  fall,  with  some  of  the  bunches  still  hang- 
ing at  f.  The  canes  of  the  arm  g  are  properly 
pruned,  as  may  be  done  in  November ;  but, 
for  safety,  it  is  well  to  leave  one  bud  more  on 
each  spui',  to  be  rubbed  off  at  starting  in  the 
spring. 

At  A  is  shown  a  vine  that  has  been  de- 
layed two  years  in  its  progress  by  having  had 
layers  taken  from  it.  The  canes  a  and  h^  on 
the  vine  C,  are  ready  to  be  depressed  (like 
G  on  F)  toward  the  horizontal  position,  to 
finish  their  growth  for  the  beginning  of  arms. 
The  student  who  has  followed  us  attentively 
thus  far  has  found  that  this  system  is  no 
more  difiicult  of  comj^rehension  than  an)?-  other, 
except  that  there  is  more  of  it.  It  is  not 
so  well  adapted  for  the  vineyard  as  some 
others  that  we  have  described,  except  where 


Teaining — Thomery. 


131 


high,  and  extended  walls  or  close  fences  are 
its  attendants ;  but  it  is  very  advantageous 
for  making  the  most  of  the  shelter  afforded  in 
yards,  gardens,  and  by  the  sides  of  buildings, 
and  especially  for  arbors,  on  which  the  ordi- 
nary efforts  always  fail. 

JF^ig.  73  is  part  of  an  arm  of  a  large   vine 


trained  with  the  aim  of  coverins^  a  hio-h  trellis 
like  M'g.  74.  It  has  been  planted  twelve 
years,  and  has  already  been  cut  back  twice 
in  impracticable  efforts  to  cover  the  whole  ele- 
vation of  about  nine  feet  with  bearino:  wood. 
Four  feet  of  elevation  is  about  the  limit  to 
which  this  can  be  done  by  ordinary  means  from 
one  vine.  Mg.  74  rej^resents  the  trellis  covered, 
which  is  quite  practicable  by  the  Thomery 
system,  and  easily  maintained. 


132 


American  Grape  Culture. 


In  Fig.  75  is  represented  a  vine  that  lias 
been  trained  to  cover  a  trellis  twelve  feet  liigL. 
The  bearing  wood,  it  will  be  seen,  is  all  near 


..y:s^ 


.^M 


T^El 


^^:w- 


Fis.  74. 


the  top.  If  pruned  for  next  season  at  the 
cross  marks,  which  is  the  usual  course,  the 
bearing  portion  will  be  moved  one  step  higher, 


Kg.  75. 


134  American  Grape  Culture. 

leaving  another  equal  distance  below  unpro- 
ductive. "Cutting  back"  down  to  A,  B,  C, 
D,  E,  would  only  be  attended  with  the  loss 
of  one  season's  fruiting,  to  go  the  same  course 
over  again.  This  does  not  come  from  faulty 
pruning,  but  from  a  radically  defective  plan. 

The  principal  objection  to  the  Thomery 
plan  for  high  trellises  is  the  slowness  with 
which  it  is  necessary  to  proceed,  six  or  seven 
years  being  required  for  its  establishnjent  in 
full  bearing.  There  need  be,  however,  but 
little  if  any  delay  in  getting  fruit  beyond 
that  of  any  other  permanent  system,  and  none 
at  all  when  j)roper  vines  are  obtained. 

In  Figs.  45  and  48  a  more  expeditious  way 
of  covering  a  wall  or  arbor  is  shown,  but 
one  promising  less  permanence.  Fig.  76  is  a 
modification  of  the  same,  making  it  a  renewal 
plan,  for  which  canes  are  provided  as  at  P, 
to  be  pruned  at  the  cross  mark,  and  laid 
down  to  take  the  place  of  the  arm  O,  which 
is  to  be  cut  away.  It  may  also  be  made 
a  system  of  permanent  arms  by  pinching  the 
canes  grown  for  renewal  like  the  others,  and 
then  pruning  all  the  canes  on  the  arms  to 
spurs. 

Vines  are  very  picturesquely  grown  on  the 


\    \,    \    \    V    \  .\    \    \.    \.   yzr 


Fig.  ■;«. 


136 


American  G-rape  Culture. 


sides  of  houses  in  a  sort  of  fan  method,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  77,  and  at  fii'st  are  remark- 
ably productive;  but  they  soon  nearly  cease 
to  bear,  except  at  their  upper  and  most  dis- 
tant  parts.      This  vine  has  been  a  European 


ISCHOLTON^ENCi 


Fig.  77. 


celebrity  of  sufficient  notoriety  to  attract  vis- 
itors from  a  distance,  one  of  whom  (Mr.  Hay 
of  Edinburgh)  has  recorded  his  disappoint- 
ment at  the  smallness  of  its  crop  by  the  accom- 
panying drawing,  which  he  affirms  is  truthful. 
Grapes  may  be  easily  grown  in  abundance 
and  perfection  on  the  sides  of  buildings  which 
are  exposed  to  the  sun  two  thirds  of  the  day. 
The  sides  which  have  the  morning  portion 
are  the  most  advantageous.     The  shade  of  the 


Training — Thomery.  137 

vines  of  a  well-covered  trellis,  standing  about 
two  feet  from  the  sunny  sides  of  dwellings,  is 
most  grateful  in  summer,  and,  unlike  that  from 
trees,  brings  no  dampness  or  unwholesomeness 
of  atmosphere  with  it.  Well  trained  vines 
are  not  only  admissible,  but  highly  pleasing  in 
almost  every  style  of  building,  from  the  cozy 
cottage  to  the  elegant  mansion.  Fig.  78  repre- 
sents a  small  cottage  with  its  southeasterly 
and  southwesterly  sides  sheltered  by  bearing 
vines.  Those  only  who  have  made  trial  of 
them  on  small  buildings  can  form  an  idea  of 
their  comfort,  aside  from  their  fruit,  in  the 
hot  days  of  summer.  This  detail  of  the  south- 
easterly side  will  soon  be  made  clear  to  the 
careful  student  of  the  Thomery. 

Fig.  79  shows  a  more  commodious  dwelling 
with  vines  on  the  side  that  is  almost  fully  ex- 
posed to  the  east,  but  inclining  a  little  to  the 
south.  There  is  an  iron  trellis  on  its  south- 
erly side,  made  of  gas  pipe,  that  is  admirably 
«adapted,  by  its  neatness  of  appearance  as  well 
as  by  its  cheapness,  for  the  purpose.  Some 
wire  is  needed  to  make  it  complete  for  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  vines.  The  side  occupied  by 
the  vines  is  06  feet  long  and  24  feet  high,  18 
of  which  are  covered  with  vines  in  six  tiers, 


Training — Thomery.  139 

the  first  beginning  three  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  all  of  them  being  three  feet  apart. 
Twelve  vines  were  set  in  a  row  two  feet  from 
the  house  and  three  feet  apart.  The  second 
season  these  vines  made  a  growth  of  eighteen 
feet  and  upward.  At  the  time  for  pruning, 
the  canes  were  bent  along  near  the  ground, 
and,  being  gathered  together,  were  bent  up- 
ward through  the  little  pedestals,  three  of 
which  are  shown  in  the  engraving.  Four  canes 
were  passed  through  each,  trained  uj)  perpen- 
dicularly, and  cut  oif  at  points  one  foot  above 
the  height  at  which  each  was  destined  to  fur- 
nish arms  for  the  four  uj^jjer  tiers.  The  excess 
of  one  foot  was  to  be  used  the  next  season 
in  burying  the  horizontal  portion  six  inches 
deep,  when  little  disposition  to  put  forth  roots 
would  exist. 

Six  feet  further  from  the  house  another  row, 
containing  six  vines,  was  planted,  and  grown 
two  seasons  to  stakes.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  they  were  led  along  the  ground  and  up 
through  the  pedestals,  to  form  the  two  lower 
tiers,  in  the  same  manner  as  those  above. 
Three  vines  occupy  each  tier;  consequently, 
each  vine  has  twelve  feet  for  the  length  of  its 
arms. 


Tkaining — Thomery. 


141 


Figs.  80,  81,  82,  are   on   so   small   a   scale 
that  the  intricacy  of  the  training  will  require 


—^ — r-^trn 


jf^rrrrrriYriTxirfnnr 


urocmii^-^ 


gEtrromrrii  htrinTr^-iirrii 


SBfrisinssB^EiiiiBms  J 


be  d    3   h     a   c  i       a.     \}    c  a  d  T)C 


Fig.  SO. 


attention   to  follow  it.     The  stable  is  24  feet 
long,  and  the  height  to  he  covered,  including 


5(\  d  (1  I  H  n 

Fig.  81. 


hv  H 


roof,  about  30  feet.  For  this  purpose,  eleven 
tiers  on  the  Thomery  principle  w^ere  required. 
Three   rows  of  .vines  were  planted,  each  row 


142 


American  Grape  Culture. 


two  feet  from  the  position  it  was  intended  to 
occupy.  Tlie  vines  were  all  bedded  once,  as 
represented  by  tlie  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  81. 
The  rows  were  six  feet  apart  at  the  beginning, 
and  still  maintain  that  relative  distance.     That 


Fig.  b2. 


is  their  j^resent  condition.  It  is  now  pro- 
posed to  establish  all  the  tiers  as  nearly  at 
the  same  time  as  practicable.  The  first  row 
will  therefore  be  trained  for  the  highest  part 
of  the  roof,  the  next  following,  and  the  third 
nearest  the  ground.  The  second  row  must  be 
trained  on  stakes  one  year  where  the  vines 
now  stand,  to  be  led  along  the  ground  the 
next  year,  and  l)e  turned  uj)  perpendicularly 
as  their  length  will  j^ermit.  The  third  row 
will  follow  in  the  same  order.     The  manner  of 


Training— Thomery.  143 

forming  tlie  arms  lias  been  already  fully  de- 
scribed. The  letters  in  Fig.  80  will  enable 
the  reader  to  trace  the  course  of  every  vine 
from  the  ground  to  the  arms.  All  of  those  in 
the  second  and  third  rows  are  to  be  bmied 
about  six  inches  deep  as  fast  as  the  two  year 
old  wood  is  formed,  so  that  all  will  stand  in 
one  row  along  the  side  of  the  building.  This 
will  be  more  clearly  exhibited  on  a  larger  scale 
elsew^here ;  but  the  present  will  l)e  fonnd  suf 
ficient  to  enable  any  one  who  has  mastered 
the  general  principles  to  perform  all  the  opera- 
tions successfully. 


CHAPTER    X. 

TRAIlSriNCi VARIOUS   FORMS. 

The  Menewal  System. — This  was  so  earnestly 
advocated  many  years  ago  by  Mr.  Clement 
Hoare,  as  to  Lave  had  his  name  associated  with 
it  ever  since.  It  consists  of  two  horizontal  arms, 
from  which  upright  canes  are  grown  in  a  serpen- 
tine course,  the  canes  being  alternately  fruited 
and  renewed.  Some  have  misunderstood  it,  or 
modified  it  by  growing  the  canes  straight,  and 
thus  destroyed  its  best  feature.  Mr.  Hoare  un- 
derstood how  the  action  of  the  vine  tends  to  the 
ends  of  the  canes,  and  advocated  the  plan  of 
growing  them  in  a  serpentine  form  to  equalize  it. 
To  take  away  this  feature,  therefore,  is  to  dam- 
age the  system. 

The  reader  now  so  well  understands  the  for- 
mation of  horizontal  arms,  that  we  can  pass  at 
once  to  the  peculiar  treatment  of  the  spurs  and 
canes.  There  should  not  be  more  than  four 
spurs  on  each  arm.     Let  us  suppose  that  half 


Teaining — Various  Forms. 


145 


the  arm  has  just  been  laid  down.     Two  buds  are 
selected  for  upright  canes,  and  one  at  the  end 


Fig.  83. 


for  the  extension  of  the  arm,  all  the  others  being 
rubbed  off.  The  two  upright  canes  must  be 
grown  m  a  serpentine  formj  like  B,  C,  in  Fig.  83, 
and  the  end  cane,  for  the  extension  of  the  arm, 

10 


146  American  Grape  Culture. 

must  be  grown  straight,  and  all  pinched  and 
atliallized  in  the  usual  manner.  In  the  fall,  the 
end  cane  must  be  cut  of  the  proper  length  for ' 
completing  the  arms,  and  the  upright  canes 
pruned,  one  to  the  lowest  bud,  and  the  other, 
this  year,  not  more  than  two  feet  long.  In  the 
spring,  from  each  of  the  spurs  grow  a  cane  for 
renewal,  and  also  a  small  cane  from  one  of  the 
base  buds.  From  the  alternate  canes  pruned 
two  feet  Ions;,  grow  as  much  fruit  as  the  vine  is 
able  to  ripen,  and  no  more ;  and  from  one  of  the 
base  buds  grow  a  small  cane  for  a  spur.  From 
the  portion  of  arm  newly  laid  down  grow  two 
upright  canes.  The  canes,  in  all  these  instances, 
are  to  be  grown  in  serpentine  form.  The  fruit 
canes  are  to  he  pinched  two  or  three  leaves 
above  the  fruit,  the  renewal  canes  pinched  about 
the  first  of  September,  and  athallage  attended 
to  in  the  usual  manner.  The  reader  must,  by 
this  time,  so  well  understand  these  operations 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  in  detail. 
In  the  fall  we  shall  have,  be2;inniuo:  at  the 
stock,  first,  a  cane  that  has  fruited,  w4th  a  small 
cane  at  its  base ;  the  old  cane  must  be  cut  en- 
tirely away,  and  the  small  cane  cut  to  its  lowest 
bud ;  secondly,  ^ve  have  from  the  spur  a  long, 
or  renewal  cane,  which  must  be  cut  three  or  four 


Training — ^Various  Forms.  147 

feet  long ;  and  also  a  small  cane  from  a  base  bud, 
which  must  be  cut  low  enough  to  get  another 
small  cane  from  a  base  bud ;  thkdly,  on  the  part 
of  the  arm  newly  laid  down  we  have  an  upright 
cane,  which  must  be  pruned  to  the  lowest  bud; 
last,  we  have  another  cane,  which  must  be  pruned 
about  two  feet  Ion 2:.  The  other  arm  must  be 
pruned  in  the  same  way.  The  reader  will  get 
a  good  idea  of  the  system  from  an  examination 
of  Fig.  83. 

In  the  spring  the  treatment  will  be  as  fol- 
lows, beginning  at  the  stock,  as  before :  from 
the  first  spur  grow  a  cane  for  renewal ;  on  the 
cane  on  the  second  spur  grow  fruit,  and  take  a 
small  cane  from  a  base  bud ;  on  the  third  spur 
grow  a  renewal  cane,  and  also  a  cane  from  a 
base  bud ;  on  the  cane  at  the  end  grow  fruit, 
and  also  a  small  cane  from  a  base  bud.  The 
summer  treatment  will  be  the  same  as  before. 
The  pruning  and  treatment  in  subsequent  years 
will  be  only  a  repetition  of  what  has  now  been 
described,  each  alternate  cane  being  annually 
fruited,  and  the  others  renewed.  Fig.  84  shows 
a  section  of  the  system  complete,  as  arranged 
for  covering  a  wall  six  or  seven  feet  high.  This 
system,  though  wiitten  about  by  almost  every 
body,  is  very  rarely  comprehended,  and  it  must 


148 


American  Grape  Culture. 


be  admitted  to  be  a  somewbat  difficult  one  to 
maintain  in  perfect  order  tbrougb  a  long  series 
of  years.  It  is  far  less  satisfactory  in  its  re- 
sults tban  others  that  are  mucb  more  simple. 


Fig.  84. 


Some  depend  for  renewal  upon  the  buds  at 
tbe  base  of  tlie  canes  on  the  spurs,  instead 
of  providing  a  small  spur ;  but  the  spur  then 
soon   becomes    inconveniently   long,    and   the 


Training — Various  Forms. 


149 


buds  often  fail.  As  between  the  renewal  and 
spur  systems  in  all  tlieir  various  forms,  tlie  lat- 
ter are  much  to  be  preferred,  both  on  account 
of  their  greater  simplicity,  and  the  better  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit. 

The  Ohlique  System. — The  French  are  inge- 
nious as  well  as  prolific  in  the  forms  which  they 
give  to  fruit  trees.  The  "  cordon  oblique  "  had 
hardly  been  worked  out  on  the  peach  and  the 
pear,  when  it  was  also  applied  to  the  grape,  as 


Fig.  85. 


may  be  seen  in  Fig.  85,  which  is  a  copy  from  the 
work  of  M.  Forney,  1862.  It  has  such  a  look  of 
the  Frenchman  about  it  that  one  would  suspect 
its  origin  at  first  sight.  Our  engraver  has  fol- 
lowed the  original  literally,  instead  of  making 
grape  wood  of  the  stocks,  as  he  knows  how  to  do 


150  American  Grape  Culture. 

better  than  any  body  else.  The  system  is  very 
simple,  and  the  engraving  shows  quite  plainly 
how  it  is  formed.  The  vines  are  planted  two 
or  three  feet  apart,  and  grown  obliquely  at  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  the  spurs  being 
all  on  one  side.  With  this  exception,  it  is  pre- 
cisely like  the  Upriglit  Stock  described  at  p. 
107,  and  the  directions  there  given  may  be  fol- 
lowed here.  The  two  end  vines,  it  will  be  seen, 
are  somewhat  modified  to  fill  up  the  trellis ;  the 
one  on  the  right  being  made  shorter,  and  the  one 
on  the  left  having  two  oblique  arms.  Any  body 
but  a  Frenchman  would  have  left  out  the  two 
end  vines ;  but  he  understands  the  value  of  space 
too  well,  and,  besides,  brings  his  good  taste  as 
well  as  judgment  to  bear  ujDon  every  thing  he 
does,  always  striving  to  unite  the  beautiful  wdth 
the  useful.  The  trellis,  too,  it  will  be  observed, 
is  a  little  peculiar.  The  uprights  are  oblique  as 
well  as  the  vines,  and  do  not  stop  at  the  hori- 
zontal top  piece,  but  extend  above  it,  so  that  the 
canes  from  the  upper  buds  may  have  something 
to  be  tied  to.  Every  thing  necessar}''  seems  to  be 
provided  in  the  engraving.  We  do  not  present 
the  system  as  being  at  all  suited  to  the  vineyard, 
but  as  something  that  may  gratify  the  amateur 
in  the  garden,  where  it  would  have  a  pretty  ef- 


Training — Various  Forms.  151 

feet.  Tlie  only  improvement  we  would  suggest 
would  be  to  bend  the  arms  to  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  grow  them  in  tiers. 

Something  like  this  was  done  by  Dr.  May, 
of  Warsaw,  111.,  several  years  ago.  He  has  two 
systems,  the  double  horizontal  arm,  and  the 
Guyot,  with  permanent  arms.  Beginning  at 
the  ground,  he  takes  the  arms  up  to  the  wire 
at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  and  then 
horizontally  along  the  wire.  His  idea  was,  that 
he  could  in  this  way  bend  his  arms  down  easier 
for  winter  covering.  Figs.  86  and  87  are  from 
a  drawing  furnished  by  Dr.  May. 

Reversed  Horizontal  Arms. — ^This  plan  con- 
sists in  bendinsr  the  arms  in  reversed  order  in 
the  first  stage  of  formation.  The  ends  should 
be  bent  to  the  ground,  and  pegged  there.  Re- 
versing in  this  way  tends  to  equalize  the  action 
of  the  plant,  causing  the  buds  near  the  stock  to 
grow  much  stronger  than  they  otherwise  would. 
To  secure  its  full  benefits,  the  end  should  re- 
main pegged  down  during  a  portion  of  the  sea- 
son, or  until  the  action  of  the  plant  has  well  de- 
veloped the  canes  near  the  stock.  If  they  are 
at  the  beginning  well  established  in  this  way,  or 
by  laying  down  a  portion  only  of  the  arm  at  a 
time,  they  will   remain   good  pretty  nearly  as 


152 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Training — ^Various  Forms.  153 

long  as  any  other  portion  of  tlie  arm,  except  the 
extreme  end.  If  they  are  weak  at  the  start, 
they  will  speedily  decline.  The  reader  will 
comprehend  this  better  when  he  has  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  the  vine. 

The  Fan  System. — If  not  complicated  by  the 
addition  of  too  many  spurs,  this  system  may 
be  neatly  worked  out  on  a  small  trellis.  It  is 
easily  formed,  and  will   be   readily  understood 


by  referring  to  Fig.  88.  The  spurs  should  be 
formed  in  two  successive  years,  so  as  to  secure 
strength  for  the  lower  ones.  The  form  is  main- 
tained by  repeated  pinching,  so  as  to  restrain 
the  strong  and  encourage  the  weak.  The  prun- 
ing is  the  same  as  in  the  plan  on  p.  155. 

Goblet^  and  other  Forms. — This  {Fig.  89)  is 
%  very  ornamental  form  in  which  to  grow  the 


154 


Ameeican  Geape  Cultuee. 


vine,  and  is  presented  to  tlie  novice  as  an  exercise 
or  "  study,"  that  will  give  a  good  direction  to 
his  taste.  It  would  form  a  pretty  feature  on  a 
well-shaven  lawn,  where  we  have  seen  a  similar 
form  used  with  pleasing  effect.  The  frame 
should  be  made  of  stout  iron  wire,  and  braced 
with  cross  pieces,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  The 
fruiting  canes  are  grown  from  four  spurs.      A 


Fig.  89. 


brief  description  will  assist  the  novice  in  work- 
ing his  "  study"  out.  The  first  year  a  single  cane 
is  grown.  In  the  fall  this  is  cut  down  to  the 
height  at  which  it  is  desired  to  form  the  goblet. 
Two  canes  are  grown  the  second  year,  and  in 
the  fall  each  of  the  canes  is  cut  down  to  the  two 
lowest  buds.  This  will  give  four  canes  the  third 
year.    These  four  canes  must  next  be  cut  so  as 


Training — Various  Forms. 


155 


to  form  four  double  spurs,  which  will  give  eight 
canes.  Figs.  90,  91,  will  show  how  this  is  done. 
The  principle  understood,  the  reader  can  have 


DECACAED 


Fig.  90. 


Fig.  91. 


goblets,  globes,  urns,  or  any  other  form  which 
his  fancy  may  suggest.  Fig.  92  is  an  illustration 
of  the  globe  form.  It  may 
be  remarked  that  pretty  con- 
stant pinching  and  athallizing 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  the 
form  in  its  proper  shape. 

Trouillet^s  Flan.— in   the 
East  it  has  been  the  practice 
Fig.  92.  from     time    immemorial    to 

grow  the  vine  without  stakes,  and  we  have  ac- 
counts of  very  old  stocks  of  almost  fabulous 
dimensions.     It  is  done  by  spurring,  and  M. 


im 


American  Grape  Culture.' 


Trouillet's  plain,  sliown  in  Mg.  93,  will  give 
the  reader  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  principle. 


Fig.  93. 


The  Hermitage  Plan. — "  Hermitage"  wine  is 
famous  wherever  good  wine  is  known.     It  may 


Fig.  94. 


interest  the  reader  to  know  how  the  vines  are 
grown.    The  "  system"  is  shown  in  Fig,  94.    It 


Training— Various  Forms. 


157 


Fig.  97. 


158  American  Grape  Culture. 

miglit  characteristically  be  called  the  "  irregu- 
lar" system,  so  far  as  the  planting  is  concerned, 
for  no  order  is  observed  in  this  respect. 

Training  on  Trees. — Where  vines  are  grown 
on  trees  as  a  practice,  it  is  usual  to  train  the 
trees  into  such  form  as  will  admit  also  of  train- 
ing the  vines.  A  good  example  of  this  is  shown 
in  Fig.  95. 

Training  on  Stakes. — The  manner  of  training 
on  stakes  from  three  or  four  spurs  is  prettily 
shown  in  JFigs,  96,  97.  It  needs  no  explana- 
tion. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

DESCRIPnOlSr    of    varieties — ISABELLA    GROUP. 

In  an.  elementary  work  like  this,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  give  a  full  descriptive  list  of  the 
numerous  varieties  of  the  native  grape.  A 
large  portion  of  them  have  no  value  whatever, 
and  others  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  garden 
or  the  curious  amateur.  We  shall  confine  our 
descriptions  principally  to  such  as  are  generally 
grown  in  the  vineyard.  A  full  list,  with  elabo- 
rate descriptions,  is  reserved  for  another  place. 

The  Isabella  Group.  —  For  present  pur- 
poses, we  shall  divide  our  principal  vineyard 
grapes  into  two  groups,  the  Isabella  and  Oataw- 
ha,  the  last  group  being  distinctively  vinous 
grapes.  The  characteiistics  of  the  Isabella 
group  are,  a  thick  and  acrid  skin,  a  tough, 
acid  center,  and  a  peculiar  "  foxy  "  odor.  We 
shall  begin  with  the  first  group,  in  which 
will  be  included  the  Isabella,  Concord,  Hart- 


160 


Description  of  Yarieties. 


ford  Prolific,    C reveling,  Adirondac,  IsraeUa, 
and  Ives's  Seedling. 


ISABELLA. 


Description  of  Varieties. — The  Isabella,  of 
southern  origin,  may  be  said  to  be  the  mother  of 
American  grape  culture.      She  performed  her 


Fig.  9S.     Leaf  of  Isabella. 


work  faithfully  and  well,  and  we  would  there- 
fore speak  tenderly  of  her  faults.  A  genera- 
tion has  grown  up  around  her,  some  of  them 
far  less  comely  than  she,  but  others  of  great 
delicacy,  refinement,  and  beauty.     The  Isabella 


American  Grape  Culture.  161 

is  a  good  grower,  hardy,  and  submits  pretty- 
well  to  treatment.  The  bunches  are  large, 
compact,  and  shouldered.  The  color  is  dark 
purple,  with  a  light  bloom.  The  berries  are 
large,  and  oval  in  form.  The  flesh  is  neither 
melting  nor  tender,  except  near  the  surface, 
and  has  a  tough,  acid  center,  that  always  re- 
mains, and  must  either  be  rejected,  or  swal- 
lowed whole.  The  skin  is  thick  and  rather 
tough,  with  a  certain  acridity  which  produces 
soreness  of  the  mouth  when  the  grapes  are 
eaten  in  quantity.  Between  the  skin  and  the 
tough  center  there  is  a  sprightly,  sweet  juice, 
that  is  really  good.  This  goodness  is  increased 
i^  quantity  in  the  most  favorable  localities, 
for  the  center  then  becomes  somewhat  broken 
down.  The  Isabella  has  the  "  foxy "  odor 
peculiar  to  the  native  grape.  It  will  not  ripen 
generally  in  the  New-England  States,  except  in 
sheltered  places.  There  is  only  one  way  of 
eating  the  Isabella  and  similar  grapes,  that 
yields  much  enjoyment,  and  that  is,  to  break 
the  skin,  and  place  the  beny  at  the  lips  so 
that  the  juice  can  be  sucked  in,  while  the  skin 
and  tough  center  are  thrown  away. 

CONCORD. 

The  Concord  is   only  one  remove  from  the 
11 


162  Description  of  Varieties. 

wild  native,  and,  with  the  native  vigor  and 
hardiness  of  its  parent,  possesses  also  its 
strongly  marked  faults.  It  originated  with 
Mr.  Bull,  of  Concord,  Massachusetts.  The 
vine  is  hardy,  vigorous,  and  early,  ripening  its 
fruit  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  which 
alone  would  give  it  value,  if  we  had  not  much 
better  grapes  ripening  about  as  early.  The 
bunch  is  very  large,  compact,  and  shouldered. 
The  color  is  dark  purple,  with  a  light  bloom. 
The  berry  is  large,  round,  and  has  a  thin  skin. 
The  flesh  is  soft  or  buttery,  with  the  fibrous, 
acid  center  characteristic  of  this  class  of  grapes, 
and  which  only  disappears  when  the  fruit  has 
passed  the  period  of  matmity.  The  juice  is 
sweet,  but  without  that  vinous  spirit  that  gives 
so  much  enjoyment  in  the  use  of  the  grape. 
In  quality,  it  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
Northern  Muscadine.  The  fruit,  even  in  its 
best  condition,  has  a  strong  "  foxy"  odor,  which 
is  very  ofiensive,  and  only  becomes  more  so  by 
use  ;  this,  added  to  its  peculiar  buttery  flesh 
and  want  of  spirit,  renders  it  any  thing  but  an 
agreeable  fruit  to  tastes  that  have  been  culti- 
vated by  the  use  of  good  grapes.  It  owes  its 
popularity  to  its  vigor  and  productiveness,  and 
not  to  its  goodness.     When  mature,  the  beri-ies 


American  Grape  Culture.  163 

often  drop  from  the  buncli,  and  are  disposed  to 
crack ;  lience  it  requires  to  be  sent  to  market,  in 
common  with  some  others,  before  it  is  fully 
ripe.  Its  tenderness  of  skin  also  unfits  it  for 
distant  transportation  or  close  packing. 

IIAETFORD   PROLIFIC. 

The  Hartford  Prolific  is  a  seedling  fi'om 
the  woods.  It  is  hardy,  a  vigorous  grower, 
very  productive,  and  very  early,  ripening 
nearly  two  weeks  before  the  Concord.  The 
bunch  is  large,  and  shouldered.  The  color 
is  dark  purple,  with  a  light  bloom.  The  ber- 
ries are  large,  somewhat  oval,  with  a  thick 
skin.  The  flesh  has  the  usual  tough,  acid  cen- 
ter of  this  class.  The  juice  is  rather  sweet, 
with  more  sprightliness  than  the  Concord,  but 
has  little  or  no  vinous  flavor.  The  fruit  is  some- 
what less  "foxy"  than  the  Concord.  When 
ripe,  the  berries  often  drop  from  the  bunch.  It 
has  been  popular  on  account  of  its  earliness  and 
large  yield. 

CREVELra^G. 

The  Oreveling  had  its  origin  in  Blooms- 
burgh,  Pennsylvania,  and  is  no  doubt  a  seed- 
ling of  the  Isabella,  which  it  resembles.     It 


164  American  Grape  Culture. 

Las  about  tlie  same  degi'ee  of  hardiness  and 
vigor  as  the  Isabella,  but  ripens  about  two 
weeks  earlier,  or  nearly  at  the  time  of  the 
Hartford  Prolific.  The  bunch  is  large,  taper- 
ing, and  generally  loose,  with  a  small  shoulder. 
The  color  is  dark  pui'ple,  with  a  light  bloom. 
The  berry  is  large,  oval,  with  a  thick  skin. 
The  flesh  has  the  usual  tough,  acid  center. 
The  juice  next  the  skin  is  sweet,  and  more 
sprightly  than  either  the  Concord  or  Hart- 
ford. The  fruit,  also,  has  less  of  the  "  foxy " 
odor.  It  has  a  habit,  however,  of  setting 
its  berries  very  thin,  owing  to  imperfect  fer- 
tilization. 

ADIROKDAC.  f: 

The  Adirondac  was  introduced  in  1863,  and 
had  its  origin  among  the  Adirondac  Moun- 
tains, N.  Y.,  whence  its  name.  It  is  no  doubt 
a  seedling  of  the  Isabella.  In  favorable  locali- 
ties it  is  a  good  grower,  but  with  us,  and  in 
many  places  where  we  have  seen  it,  it  drops 
its  leaves  early,  and  hence  ripens  imperfectly, 
and  gets  winter-killed.  How  far  this  is  ow- 
ing to  imperfections  in  propagation,  remains 
to  be  seen.  The  bunch  is  large,  compact,  and 
shouldered.     Color   dark   purple,  with  a  light 


Desckiption  of  Varieties.  165 

bloom.  The  berry  is  large,  roundisli  oval, 
with  a  thin  skin.  The  flesh  is  tender,  with 
very  little  unripe  center.  The  juice  is  sweet, 
with  a  pleasant,  but  not  strongly  marked  fla- 
vor. In  the  Adirondac  we  see  the  first  de- 
cided step  in  the  breaking  down  and  ripening 
of  the  tough,  fibrous  center,  and  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  offensive  "  foxy "  odor,  more  or 
less  characteristic  of  the  Isabella  group.  The 
skin,  too,  has  become  thinner  and  more  ten- 
der. In  quality,  it  is  much  the  best  grape 
thus  far  mentioned.  It  rij)ens  early,  or  soon 
after  the  Hartford  Prolific. 

ISRAELLA. 

The  Israella^  also  lately  introduced,  was  ori- 
ginated by  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant,  of  lona  Island. 
The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive. 
The  bunch  is  large,  compact,  and  shouldered. 
The  color  is  dark  purple,  with  a  light  bloom. 
The  berry  is  large,  roundish  oval,  with  a  mod- 
erately tender  skin.  The  flesh  is  tender,  and 
ripens  fully,  quite  to  the  center.  The  juice  is 
sweet  and  sprightly,  with  a  pleasant  flavor. 
In  the  Israella  we  have  another  step  in  advance. 
One  great  desideratum  in  the  grape,  in  common 
with  all  fruits  used  as  food,  is  thorough  ripe- 


Fig.  99— Iwaella. 


Description  of  Varieties.  167 

ness  in  all  its  parts.  Nothing  less  should 
satisfy  us  in  the  grape,  any  more  than  in  the 
apple  or  the  pear.  In  this  respect,  the  Israella 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  Isabella  group.  The 
disagreeable  "  foxiness,"  too,  has  mostly  disap- 
peared, and  the  fruit  may  be  eaten  without 
offense  to  the  taste  or  smell.  It  ripens  quite 
early,  or  about  the  time  of  the  Hartford  Pro- 
lific. It  is  a  long  keeper,  the  berries  adhering 
well  to  the  bunch. 

IVES'S   SEEDLLN'G. 

Ives^s  Seedling,  just  now  becoming  known  at 
the  West,  originated  with  the  Hon.  Mr.  Ives, 
near  Cincinnati,  something  more  than  twenty 
years  ago,  by  whom  cuttings  were  liberally  dis- 
tributed. Dr.  Kittredge  was  one  of  the  early 
growers  of  it,  and  for  a  time  it  took  his  name. 
It  is  probably  a  seedling  of  the  Isabella,  which 
it  somewhat  resembles.  Its  chief  recommenda- 
tions are  its  hardiness  and  productiveness ;  its 
prominent  defects,  a  large,  tough,  acid  center, 
and  very  "  foxy"  odor.  Since  the  marked  fail- 
ure of  the  Catawba  in  the  vicinity  of  Cincin- 
nati, for  which  neither  soil  nor  climate  is  well 
adapted,  the  Ives  has  been  gaining  favor,  and 
Col.  Warino;,  with  whom  the  Catawba  will  not 


168  American  Grape  Culture. 

thrive,  has  pretty  extensive  vineyards  of  it.  It 
has  not  even  the  remotest  value  as  a  table 
grape,  but  it  is  claimed  that  good  wine  may  be 
made  from  it.  We  think  that  attempts  to 
make  real  vrine  from  any  "  hard-hearted  "  mem- 
ber of  this  family  must  end  in  a  small  measure 
of  success. 

Comparison  of  Varieties. — We  have  now  no- 
ticed such  of  this  group  as  are  prominently  be- 
fore the  public.  We  propose  next  to  group 
them  together  for  certain  purposes  of  compar- 
ison. 

1^^.  Qiiality. — If  we  compare  them  in  quality^ 
they  will  arrange  themselves  in  the  following 
order :  Israella^  Adirondac,  Isabella',  Oreveling 
Hartford  Prolific,  Concord,  Ives's  Seedling. 
The  difference  between  some  is  quite  trifling, 
while  between  others  it  is  very  marked. 

2d.  For  the  Table. — If  we  compare  them  for 
the  table,  as  articles  of  food,  goodness  must 
take  precedence,  and  they  will  assume  the  same 
order. 

M.  For  Marhet. — If  we  compare  them  for 
marTcet  purposes,  we  must  consider  something 
besides  goodness ;  because,  if  a  grape,  however 
good,  will  not  "  caiTy"  to  market,  it  loses  its 


Descbiption  of  Yarieties.  169 

market  value :  it  may  be  tiie  best  grape  for 
wine  or  for  tlie  table,  for  borne  consumption, 
but  it  is  clearly  not  tbe  best  for  market,  liow- 
ever  much  it  ought  to  be  so.  That  is  a  rare 
grape  which  possesses  in  itself  all  these  quali- 
fications. We  must  look  for  it  outside  of  this 
group.  We  may,  notwithstanding,  find  here  a 
grape  that  is  best  for  both  market  and  the 
table.  In  time  our  group  will  no  doubt  settle 
itself  in  this  wise :  Israella,  Concord,  Isabella, 
Hartford  Prolific,  Creveling.  We  omit  the 
Ives,  since  it  is  clearly  not  a  table  grape.  We 
are  at  a  loss  how  to  place  the  Adirondac,  be- 
cause we  have  seen  it  winter  kill  so  badly.  If 
this  is  only  a  temporary  fault,  its  excellence 
must  give  it  a  place  far  in  advance  of  the  Con- 
cord. We  think  the  Hartford  a  better  grape 
than  the  Concord ;  but,  though  both  have  the 
vice  of  dropping  their  berries,  the  Hartford  is 
much  the  greatest  sinner,  and  we  therefore  place 
the  Concord  in  advance  of  it  for  market.  If, 
however,  we  add  that  the  berries  of  the  Con- 
cord crack  pretty  badly,  it  will  reduce  their 
vicious  habits  pretty  nearly  to  a  level.  The 
Israella  is  as  hardy  as  either  of  them ;  ripens 
before  the  Concord,  is  as  early  as  the  Hartford, 
infinitely  better  than  either,  and  free  from  their 


170  American  Grape  Culture. 

vice  of  dropping  tlie  fruit.  These  qualities 
give  it  tlie  first  position  in  this  group  as  a 
market  fruit.  We  place  the  Isabella  after 
the  Concord,  only  because  it  can  not  be  ripened 
over  so  wide  a  surface  ;  but  where  it  will  ripen, 
it  ought  to  take  precedence  of  it.  So,  too,  of 
the  Creveling.  We  make  no  comparisons  for 
wine,  because  we  do  not  consider  this  group 
true  wine  grapes. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

DESCEIPTION     OF    VAEEETIES — CONTTNUED. 

The  Catawba  Group. — We  now  pass  to 
the  Catawba  group,  whicli  is  composed  of 
grapes  that  are  distinctively  vinous.  It  must 
not  be  understood,  however,  that  all  the  grapes 
of  this  group  are  of  the  Catawba  family.  Al- 
len's Hybrid,  for  example,  clearly  is  not ;  but 
it  is  placed  here  for  our  present  purpose,  since 
it  is  a  truly  vinous  grape,  and  has  but  little 
affinity  with  the  Isabella  family.  The  lead- 
ing characteristics  of  this  group  are,  a  flesh 
more  or  less  tender,  with  a  sweet  juice  having 
a  vinous  flavor.  It  is  here  that  we  And  our 
best  table  as  well  as  wine  grapes ;  some,  in- 
deed, of  such  excellence  as  to  elevate  the  na- 
tive grape  to  a  very  high  position  by  the 
side  of  the  best  varieties  of  Europe.  We 
shall  include  in  this  group  the  Catawba^  Diana, 
AllerCs  Hybrid,  Delaioare,  and  lona. 


172  American  Grape  Culture. 

CATAWBA. 

If  the  Isabella  was  the  motlier  of  Ameri- 
can grape  culture,  tlie  Catawba  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  mother  of  American  wine  mah 
ing.  It  has  performed  its  mission  equally 
well  ;    it    has    done,    indeed,   all    that   it    is 


Fig.  100.     Leaf  of  Catawba. 

capable  of  doing,  and  might  now  very  well 
be  laid  aside  as  a  pleasant  memory,  while  its 
place  is  filled  by  others  better  fitted  to  per- 
fect the  work  it  so  well  began.  The  Catawba 
had  its  origin  in  the  South.  Whatever  of 
goodness  the  Isabella  may  have   is   found  in 


Description  of  Varieties.  173 

the  Catawba  in  a  greater  degree.  The  Isa- 
bella has  sweetness  nearly  in  its  simplest  form, 
and,  consequently,  only  a  feeble  or  low  degree 
of  vinous  flavor,  suited  to  tastes  that  are  sat- 
isfied with  sweetness  chiefly,  and  look  for  lit- 
tle more.  The  Catawba  has  more  sweetness, 
but  added  to  it,  enough  of  the  acid  of  the  grape 
to  produce  spirit  and  animation.  It  is  also  less 
"  foxy"  than  the  Isabella.  The  Catawba,  though 
very  far  from  faultless,  is  altogether  a  better 
grape  than  the  Isabella.  It  is  hardy,  and  a  good 
grower.  The  bunch  is  large,  moderately  com- 
pact, and  shouldered.  The  color  is  a  dark 
claret,  covered  with  a  fine  light  bloom.  The 
berry  is  large,  round,  with  a  thick  skin.  The 
flesh  has  a  large  tough,  acid  center,  between 
which  and  the  skin  is  a  sweet  juice,  having 
a  spicy,  vinous  flavor.  In  the  Catawba  the 
"  foxy "  odor  has  lost  a  considerable  degree 
of  its  oflfensiveness.  The  skin,  however,  is 
acrid,  and  often  produces  soreness  in  tender 
mouths.  There  is  always  some  astringency, 
and  often  also  a  peculiar  bitterness,  in  the 
Catawba,  very  unpleasant  to  the  taste.  The 
acid  center  disappears  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing as  the  grape  is  grown  in  localities  more 
or    less    favorable     to    its     ripening,    but    is 


174  Americai^^  Grape  Culture. 

never  wliolly  absent.  There  is  a  considera- 
ble degree  of  vinous  spirit  in  the  juice  of 
the  Catawba;  but,  on  the  whole,  there  is 
a  want  of  purity  that  detracts  greatly  from 
its  excellence.  The  Catawba  is  so  subject  to 
mildew,  sun-scald,  and  especially  rot,  both 
black  and  bitter,  as  to  make  its  culture  pre- 
carious, except  under  favorable  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate.  It  ripens  too  late  for  the 
New-England  States. 

DIANA. 

The  Diana  orig^inated  with  Mrs.  Diana  Ore- 
hore,  of  Milton  Hill,  Massachusetts.  It  is  a 
seedling  of  the  Catawba.  It  is  hardy,  and  a 
rank  grower.  The  bunch  varies  from  below 
to  above  medium  size,  is  very  compact,  and 
usually  shouldered.  The  color  is  a  pale  or 
tawny  claret.  The  berry  is  of  medium  size, 
round,  with  a  thick  skin.  The  flesh  has  a 
small  fibrous  center,  becoming  sweet  when 
ripe,  and  considerable  toughness  near  the  skin, 
which,  however,  becomes  pretty  tender  and 
good  when  fully  ripe.  The  flesh,  indeed,  is 
somewhat  meaty ;  hence  it  is  a  good  keeper, 
and  will  make  a  tolerable  raisin.  The  juice 
is  sweet,  with  a  high  vinous  flavor.  The  Di- 
ana is  sweet  some  time  before  it  is  ripe;  in- 


Fig.  101 — Diana,  from  a  specimen  bunch. 


176  American  Grape  Culture. 

deed,  it  is  often  sweet  wlien  not  colored.      It 
has  a  peculiar  animal  odor  before  ripe,  which 
has    been   variously   characterized,  and   some- 
times rather  too  broadly  for  good  taste.     This 
odor,  however,  gradually    disappears    as    the 
fruit    aj^proaches    full    maturity,  and    almost 
ceases  to  be  offensive.     When  young,  the  vine 
is  disposed  to  overbear,  and  hence  ripens  its 
fruit  imperfectly.     It  is  only  as   the  vine  ac- 
quires age  that  the  sugary  sweetness  and  high 
vinous  flavor  of  the  Diana  are  fully  developed, 
and  then  we  see  its  great  superiority  to  the 
Catawba.     It  requires  peculiar  treatment,  how- 
ever ;  and  this  is  so  little  understood  that  it  has 
been  a  great  drawback  to  its  cultivation.     It 
will   ripen    in  a  considerable   portion  of   the 
New-England   States,  in  well-chosen   and  shel- 
tered positions.     We  have  said  that  the  Diana 
is  hardy,  but  this  is  true  only  when  its  wood 
is  mature.     In  a  soil  too  rich  it  makes  a  very 
rampant   growth,  that  is   neither   very  hardy 
nor  productive.     It  needs  a  deep,  dry,  but  not 
rich  soil. 

Allen's  hybrid. 

Allen^s    Hybrid    originated    with    Mr.     J. 
Fisk    Allen,  of    Salem,  Massachusetts,  a  gen- 


102— Allen's  Hybrid. 

12 


178  American  Grape  Culture. 

tleman  to  wliom  grape  culture  is  largely  in- 
debted. It  is  a  hybrid  between  the  .  native 
and  foreign  grape,  its  mixed  character  being 
plainly  seen  both  in  the  fruit  and  the  leaves. 
It  is  the  first  exanij)le  of  the  kind  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge,  and  in  this  respect 
is  one  of  our  most  interesting  grapes.  Mr. 
Allen  raised  other  seedlings  at  the  same  time, 
but  this  is  the  only  one  that  proved  to  be 
valuable.  The  vine  is  not  very  hardy,  but 
a  good  grower,  and  yields  readily  to  treat- 
ment. The  leaves  are  well  marked,  having 
a  peculiar  crumpled  appearance  not  common 
to  any  other  variety.  The  bunch  is  large, 
compact,  and  shouldered.  The  color  is  amber 
green,  mth  a  translucent  pearly  bloom,  and  here 
and  there  dots  of  claret.  The  berry  is  large, 
nearly  round,  and  has  a  thin,  tender  skin. 
The  flesh  is  tender.  The  juice  is  sweet,  rich, 
and  spirited,  with  a  pm^e  vinous  and  mild 
muscat  flavor.  The  Allen  is  one  of  our  best 
table  grapes.  The  flesh  matures  uniformly,  and 
the  skin  is  tender  and  good.  It  is  free  from 
"  foxy"  odor.  The  vine  is  not  sufficiently  hardy 
to  adapt  it  to  cultivation  in  the  vineyard,  except 
in  sheltered  localities.  When  exposed,  it  is 
apt  to  mildew  and  be  winter-killed.     For  the 


Description  of  Varieties.  1'?9 

garden,  and  places  where  shelter  and  ventila- 
tion ai-e  provided,  it  is  one  of  the  best  grapes 
we  have.  It  ripens  nearly  three  weeks  before 
the  Isabella. 

DELAWARE. 

The  origin  of  the  Delaware  is  wrapped  in 
mysteiy.  That  it  is  a  native  grape,  there 
should  be  no  more  doubt  than  there  is  in  re- 
gard to  the  Isabella  and  Catawba.  The  leaves 
on  young  vines  often  show  the  characteristic 
furziness;  but  seedlings  which  we  and  others 
have  raised  from  it  show  the  native  character 
in  fruit  and  foliage  too  broadly  to  be  mistaken. 
The  question  of  its  origin  would  never  have 
been  raised,  but  for  the  excellence  of  its  fruit. 
It  was  thought  to  be  too  refined  for  a  native  ; 
in  fact,  the  native  gi'ape  had  become,  in  our 
minds,  so  almost  indissolubly  associated  with 
the  "  fox,"  that  we  had  learned  to  recognize  a 
native  by  its  offensive  smell  and  tough  center. 
Happily,  the  lona,  which  more  than  one  old 
grape  grower  has  pronounced  to  be  a  Frontig- 
nan,  and  which  it  certainly  resembles  very 
closely,  has  stepped  in  to  spoil  the  logic  of  this 
kind  of  argument,  and  we  may  now  claim  to 
have  at  least  three  natives  free  from  this  offen- 
sive taint.     The  Delaware  is  hardy,  a  vigorous 


180  American  Grape  Culture. 

but  compact  grower,  and  few  kinds  yield  so 
readily  to  treatment.  The  bunch  is  small,  very 
compact,  (the  berries  being  often  compressed  in 
consequence,)  and  has  a  small  shoulder,  very 
much  like  a  little  bunch.  The  color  varies 
from  bright  to  pale  claret.  The  berry  is  small, 
round,  with  a  thin  and  rather  tender  skin.  The 
flesh  has  only  a  very  small  fibrous  center,  but 
quite  sweet  when  ripe.  The  juice  is  sugary 
and  sweet,  with  a  pure,  delicate,  but  spirited 
vinous  flavor.  The  berry  is  sweet  some  time 
before  it  is  ripe.  This  sweetness  of  the  berry 
before  maturity  is  characteristic  of  the  Diana, 
Delaware,  and  lona.  The  early  ripening  and 
hardy  character  of  the  Delaware  fit  it  for  gen- 
eral cultivation. 

The  Delaware  has  taken,  and  will  always 
maintain,  a  high  rank  among  American  grapes. 
It  was  the  first  to  give  us  a  true  idea  of  purity, 
delicacy,  and  refinement,  almost  its  only  fault, 
besides  its  want  of  size,  being  its  small  fibrous 
center,  which  prevents  it  from  being  tender  in 
all  its  parts.  That  little  center,  however,  is 
sweet  when  ripe.  It  must  be  admitted,  also, 
that  the  bunch  is  too  compact;  so  much  so, 
often,  as  to  prevent  the  interior  berries  from 
becoming  fully  ripe ;  it  makes  it  difficult,  too, 


Description  of  Varieties.  181 

to  pick  tlie  berries  to  eat.  These  faults  conced- 
ed, it  still  remains  a  delicious  grape.  It  has 
performed  the  great  and  invaluable  office  of 
educating  the  American  taste  up  to  the  stand- 
ard of  European  kinds;  it  has  at  least  done 
this  with  a  portion  of  the  public,  and  prepared 
others  for  a  truer  appreciation  of  real  excel- 
lence in  the  grape.  The  mass  are  already  begin- 
ning to  perceive  the  difference  between  a  grape 
that  must  be  shot  down  with  closed  eyes  and 
wide  open  mouth,  and  one  that  may  be  deliber- 
ately eaten  as  food. 

lONA. 

The  lona  originated  with  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant, 
of  lona  Island,  N.  Y.  The  vine  is  hardy,  a 
vigorous  grower,  and  yields  readily  to  treat- 
ment. The  bunch  is  la,rge,  moderately  com- 
pact, and  distinctly  double  shouldered  or 
winged.  The  color  is  a  bright  claret.  The 
beriy  is  large,  round,  with  a  thin  skin.  The 
flesh  is  meaty,  melting,  and  tender  all  the  way 
throu o-h.  The  j nice  is  sugary  and  sweet,  spirited 
and  vinous,  with  a  23ure  but  delicate  muscat- 
flavor.  Just  after  "  stoning,"  the  berry  becomes 
so  transparent  that  the  seed  may  be  distinctly 
seen.  The  flesh  is  sweet  enough  to  be  eaten 
nearly  two  weeks  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe. 


Eg.  103— lona. 


Description  of  Varieties. 


188 


It  is  a  long  keeper,  and  dries  into  an  excellent 
raisin.  Tlie  hardiness  of  the  vine  and  the  early 
ripening  of  the  fruit  adapt  it  to  general  culti- 


Fig.  104— lona. 

vation.     It  is  tlie  best   of  American   grapes, 
both  for  the  table  and  wine. 

When  the  excellence  of  the  Delaware  had 
become  fully  recognized  ^nd  appreciated,  the 
wish  was  very  generally  expressed,  that  we 
might  be  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  grape  as 
good  as  the  Delaware,  but  twice  as  large.  The 
thought  seemed  to  be,  that  nothing  more  could 
be  desired.  This  wish  was  soon  more  than 
realized  by  the  appearance  of  the  lona,  which, 


184  American  Grape  Culture. 

in  many  respects,  may  be  regarded  as  a  Dela- 
ware greatly  enlarged.     There  are  some  defects 
in  the  Delaware,  however,  which  disappear  in 
the  lona.     Some  of  these  may  here  be  noted. 
For  example,  the  small  fibrous  center  of  the 
Delaware  is  replaced  by  thorough  ripeness  in 
the  lona ;    all  the  flesh  becomes  equally  ripe 
•and  tender,  so  that  a  berry,  pressed  between 
the  tongue  and  roof  of  the  mouth,  melts  en- 
tirely away,  leaving  nothing  but  the  seeds  and 
skin.     There  can  be  no  perfection  in  the  grape 
till  this  j)oint  is  reached.     Both  are  exceedingly 
delicate  and  refined  ;  but  the  lona  has  super- 
added a  -pure  and  delicate  muscat  aroma,  gen- 
erally wanting  in  the  Delaware.     The  skin  of 
both  is  thin ;  but  that  of  the  lona  is  so  finely 
woven   together,   that   none   of   the   goodness 
within   can   escape:   the   berries   never  burst, 
even  when  fully  ripe,  though  the  bunches  be 
piled   thickly  u^^on   each    other.     A  thin   but 
firm  skin  is  necessary  to  all  wine  and  raisin 
grapes.     The  flesh  of  the  Delaware,  except  the 
small  fibrous   center,  ri2:)ens   into  pure,  sweet 
juice,  and  thus  it  remains  as  long  as  the  berry 
retains  its  integrity  ;  but  when  a  change  takes 
place,  as  in  time  it  must,  the  animating  spirit 
soon   passes   away;    the    small   center  finally 


Description  of  Varieties.  185 

breaks  down  by  decay,  wliicb  vitiates  tlie 
wbole  mass.  It  is  true  tliat  tliis  does  not 
take  place  till  some  time  after  the 'berries  are 
ripe ;  but  ultimately  it  does.  Hence  the  Dela- 
ware is  not  a  very  long  keeper.  The  flesh  of 
the  lona,  on  the  contrary,  ripens  evenly  and 
thoroughly  in  all  its  parts;  its  uniform  con- 
sistency is  remarkable.  It  ripens  into  juice,  it 
is  true,  from  center  to  circumference ;  but  this 
juice  is  held  together,  as  it  were,  in  little  sacs, 
and  has  such  a  peculiar  meaty  consistence,  that, 
instead  of  decaying,  it  is  slowly  converted  into 
a  rich  sugary  mass  equal  to  the  best  Malaga 
raisins  ;  hence  it  is  a  long  keeper.  It  makes  a 
good  raisin  without  the  help  of  artificial  means ; 
the  Delaware  will  not,  even  w-ith  their  aid. 
This  property  of  gradually  resolving  itself  into 
sugar  without  evaporating  all  its  juice  gives  the 
lona  great  value  as  a  wine  grape.  The  juice 
of  the  Delaware  is  rich  in  the  peculiar  sugar 
and  acid  of  the  grape,  and  hence  it  makes  a 
fine  wine  ;  its  defect  is  the  small  fibrous  center, 
which  afi:ects  the  wine  just  in  proportion  as  it 
is  more  or  less  ripe :  its  presence  contributes  an 
element  which  interferes  Avitli  vinous  fermenta- 
tion, and  prevents  the  wine  from  attaining  per- 
fection and  maturity.     The  juice  of  the  lona  is 


186  American  Grape  Culture. 

even  riclier  than  tlie  Delaware  in  the  peculiar 
sugar  and  acid  of  the  grape  ;  but,  unlike  the 
Delaware,  it  has  no  fiber  or  unripeness  to  min- 
gle with  the"  must,  and  hence  it  makes  a  perfect 
and  enduring  wine.  The  must  of  the  Dela- 
ware has  l^een  recorded  at  105"^ ;  it  will  prob- 
ably go  a  little  higher  than  that.  We  have 
seen  lona  register  130°,  the  must  being  from 
grapes  that  had  begun  to  shrivel.  The  must, 
indeed,  is  so  rich  in  vinous  proj)erties,  that  we 
and  others  have  made  good  wine  from  it  in 
pint  bottles,  in  a  warm  room,  without  the 
least  disposition  to  acetous  or  destructive  fer- 
mentation. 

We  present  this  brief  but  somewhat  analyti- 
cal comparison  of  ou¥  two  best  wine  grapes, 
for  the  purj)ose  of  giving  the  beginner  some 
useful  ideas  in  regard  to  those  nice  shades  of 
difference  in  the  qualities  of  grapes,  which  not 
only  impress  a  distinctive  character  upon  them, 
but  graduate  their  value  for  wine  or  the  table. 
It  is  the  only  way  in  which  we  can  acquii'e  a 
real  knowledge  of  the  comparative  excellences 
and  defects  of  grapes,  and  form  a  true  estimate 
of  their  value ;  and  we  have  often  wondered 
that  it  has  been  so  entii^ely  overlooked,  more 
especially  since  it  is  a  chief  element  in  those 


Desckiption  of  Varieties.  18T 

questions  already  of  general  interest,  the  so- 
lution of  wMch  is  so  vitally  important  to  all 
who  contemplate  planting  vineyards. 

Comparison  of  Varieties. — We  now  propose 
to  compare  the  Catawba,  group  in  reference  to 
the  following  points :  1st.  Quality ;  2d.  Value 
for  the  Table;   3d.  Marlet;   4th.    Wine. 

1st.  Quality. — In  regard  to  quality.,  they  at 
once  arrange  themselves  as  follows:  lona., 
Delaware.,  AUeiiJs  Hyhrid,  Diana'.,  Catawba, 
In  making  this  arrangement,  we  are  governed 
strictly  by  the  sum  total  of  goodness  possessed 
by  each  kind.  There  can  be  no  difference  of 
opinion  in  regard  to  it,  except  that  there  may 
be  a  few  who  will  prefer  the  Allen  to  the 
Delaware.  It  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  of 
grapes,  but  it  lacks  the  pure  richness  of  the 
Delaware.  We  desire  the  reader  to  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind  the  goodness  and  defects  of 
each  particular  kind.  All  his  plans  must  have 
their  origin  and  aim  here,  if  he  would  attain 
to  the  largest  measure  of  satisfaction  and  suc- 
cess. 

^d.  For  the  Table. — ^For  table  use,  we  must 
be  governed  by  tenderness  of  flesh,  high  flavor, 
general  good  quality,  and  long  keeping ;  hence 


188  Ameeican  Geape  Cultuee. 

we  place  the  grapes  of  this  group  in  the  follow- 
ing  order:  lona^  Delaivare^  Allen's  Hybrid,  Di- 
ana, Cataivha.  We  look  upon  the  grape  as 
a  nourishing  and  refreshing  foody  all  grapes, 
therefore,  that  are  not  tender  and  digestible, 
should,  be  excluded  from  the  table.  It  is  only 
the  first  three  that  fully  meet  these  conditions. 
36?.  For  Marhet. — We  have  already  stated 
the  conditions  which  should  obtain  in  grow- 
ing grapes  for  market.  The  following,  then, 
will  be  the  order  of  this  group :  lona,  Dela- 
IV are,  Catawba,  Diana,  Allen^s  Hybrid.  The 
Allen  is  placed  last  because  of  our  inability 
to  produce  it  in  quantity.  It  will  always 
command  a  higlier  j)rice  than  the  Catawba. 
If  the  treatment  of  the  Diana  should  ever  be 
mastered,  so  as  to  insure  its  more  general  culti- 
vation, it  will  be  found  more  profitable  than 
the  Catawba :  it  is  a  better  grape,  and  a  better 
keeper.  We  imagine,  however,  that  it  will  be 
chiefly  grown  for  wine.  In  regard  to  the 
others,  enougli  is  known  to  jilace  their  relative 
market  value  beyond  a  doubt.  It  is  by  no 
means  the  most  productive  grape  that  is  best 
for  market ;  that  clearly  is  best  whicli  will 
net  the  most  profit.  Up  to  a  recent  period 
the   market  was   monopolized   by  the  Isabella 


Desceiption  of  Varieties.  189 

and  Catawba,  and  other  kinds  could  scarcely 
be  sold,  chiefly  because  the  people  had  become 
familiar  with  the  former,  and  knew  nothing 
better ;  but  all  this  is  changing  now ;  the  people 
are  breaking  away  from  the  bondage  of  names, 
and  are  rapidly  learning  to  ap23reciate  a  fruit 
for  its  goodness  and  not  for  its  name.  Shrewd 
men  are  beginning  to  perceive  this,  and  are 
wisely  preparing  themselves  for  the  change. 
Have  we  not  chased  the  "  fox  "  Ions:  enough  ? 
and  is  it  not  time  that  he  were  finally  "  holed  ? " 
We  have  no  doubt  that  a  time  will  come  when 
the  merits  of  the  last  new  fruit  will  be  as 
eagerly  discussed  around  the  stands  of  the 
public  market  as  they  now  are  by  pomologists 
in  "  learned  assembly  met,"  and  possibly  with 
nearly  as  much  intelligence  and  good  taste. 

4th.  Wme.  —  For  witie,  the  arrangement 
will  not  vary  much  from  that  for  the  table. 
It  is  as  follows :  lona,  Delaware,  Diana,  Alr 
lerHs  Hybrid,  Catawba.  Our  placing  of  the 
Allen  is  altogether  guess-work,  for  we  have 
never  made  wane  from  it,  and  do  not  know  of 
any  body  who  has ;  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  will  make  a  purer  and  much  richer  wine 
than  the  Catawba.  It  is  not  at  all  probable, 
however,  that  it  will  ever  be  grown  in  quantity 


190  American  Grape  Culture. 

to  make  wine  from,  and  it  therefore  becomes 
a  matter  of  small  moment  where  it  is  placed 
in  this  list.  There  may  be  some,  however, 
who  would  like  to  make  wine  from  it  in 
small  quantity  for  their  own  use,  and  it  is 
just  as  well  that  they  should  know  that  the 
wine  is  in  the  grape. 

We  have  included  in  this  group  all  that 
could  be  justly  considered  as  having  any  claims 
as  true  wine  grapes;  if  the  list  were  still  fur- 
ther reduced,  there  would  be  much  gain  to 
American  wine  making.  In  all  that  we  have 
written,  we  have  taken  decided  ground  for 
j^ure  wine;  we  have  warred  against  adultera- 
tions in  all  their  multifarious  forms,  and  we 
shall  do  so  to  the  end.  Sugar,  brandy,  and 
alcohol  are  adulterations,  and  we  are  only 
grieved  when  we  see  well-meaning  men  pro- 
pose and  defend  them.  We  do  not  mean  to 
countenance  any  thing  but  the  pure  juice  of 
the  grape.  No  kind,  the  pure  juice  of  which 
can  not  be  made  into  an  endiu-Ing  wine,  should 
be  admitted  into  the  list  of  wine  grapes ;  other- 
wise we  open  the  door,  not  only  for  sirups 
and  confections,  rhubarb  and  elderberries,  but 
also  for  Gallizing,  and  other  slow  poisonings 
and  absurdities.     If  diinks  will  be  made  from 


Description  of  Yarieties.  191 

such  things,  give  them  their  right  names, 
but  do  not  call  them  wine.  We  may  talk  as 
learnedly  as  we  please  about  cane  and  grape 
sugar,  and  the  chemistry  of  fermentation ; 
we  can  only  make  real  wine  from  the  pure 
juice  of  the  grape.  We  hope  American  wine 
makers  will  accept  this  truth,  and  not  tamj^er 
with  the  public  health  and  credulity.  Our 
list,  therefore,  necessarily  excludes  all  grapes 
that  have  large,  unripe,  acid  centers,  as  well  as 
those  that  are  deficient  in  the  acids  and  suo^ar 
peculiar  to  the  grape,  or  in  which  these  and 
other  vinous  elements  are  not  properly  com- 
bined. American  wine  makins*  is  beo-inninof 
to  assume  such  importance  and  proj^ortions, 
that  a  candid  treatment  of  the  subject  could 
not  be  passed  over,  even  in  an  elementary 
treatise  on  grape  culture.  There  is  another, 
but  small  class  of  wine  grapes,  which  will  be 
noticed  elsewhere. 

We  head  the  list  with  the  lona,  not  alone 
because  we  have  tried  it,  but  because  it  pos- 
sesses in  an  eminent  degree  the  qualities  of 
the  best  known  Mdne  grapes,  in  this  respect  sur- 
passing all  other  American  grapes.  This  is  not 
a  matter  of  opinion  ;  it  is  a  verified  ftict.  On 
a  small  scale   we   have   made   excellent   wine 


1^2  American  Grape  Culture. 

from  it;  better  tlian  any  that  we  liave  seen 
made  from  the  Delaware,  and  that  is  great 
praise ;  but  we  have  seen  wine  made  from  it  by 
others  in  larger  quantity,  that  was  equal  to  the 
very  best  German  wines.  It  has  the  richness, 
body,  bouquet,  and  fullness  of  flavor  that 
belong  to  the  highest  class  of  wines.  If 
the  fruit  is  good,  so  is  the  plant.  This  has 
now  been  sufficiently  tried,  and  the  testimony 
is  pretty  uniform  in  regard  to  its  hardiness, 
health,  and  vigor.  It  is  easily  trained,  and 
bears  abundant  crops  of  very  beautiful  fruit. 
The  bunch  is  just  sufficiently  open  to  permit  of 
the  ripening  of  every  berry.  The  skin,  too, 
though  thin,  has  such  firmness  of  texture  as  to 
prevent  even  the  ripest  berries  from  bursting 
and  wasting  the  juice.  The  fruit  may,  in  conse- 
quence, be  kept  without  loss  till  the  berries 
begin  to  shrivel,  when  the  expressed  juice  will 
be  found  to  be  exceedingly  rich.  In  young 
vines,  the  bunches  are  sometimes  a  little  loose, 
especially  if  the  vine  is  growing  with  great 
vigor.  We  have  given  a  fair  description  of  the 
vine  and  its  fruit,  from  which  the  reader  can 
form  an  opinion  as  to  its  claim  to  occupy  the 
position  we  have  given  it  at  the  head  of  Amer- 
ican wine  grapes. 


Description  of  Varieties.  193 

We  place  the  Delaware  second,  because  it 
possesses  wine  qualities  in  a  greater  degree 
than  any  other  native  grape,  except  tlie  loua ; 
besides,  such  wine  has  been  made  from  it  in 
quantity  by  Mr.  Mottier  and  others  as  to  leave 
no  doul^t  in  regard  to  its  pi'oper  place.  To 
our  taste,  Catawba  is  a  ilat  wine  compared 
with  the  Delaware;  besides,  it  is  not  lialf  as 
enduring.  We  find  in  tlie  Delaware  many  of 
the  same  wine  qualities  possessed  by  the  Ion  a. 
but  some  of  them  less  strongly  marked.  Just 
that  little  ii))rous  center,  and  still  more  the 
compactness  of  the  bunch,  sometimes  make 
the  wine  slightly  imperfect.  Ill  good  seasons, 
however,  and  whenever  the  fruit  ripens  23er- 
fectly,  these  imperfections  disappear,  and  we 
have  a  wine  of  great  excellence.  The  vine 
is  admirabl}'"  adapted  to  vineyard  culture, 
being  so  easily  trained.  A  word  of  caution, 
however,  may  here  be  added  :  the  vine  is 
strongly  disposed  to  overl^ear,  and  generally 
sets  more  fruit  tlian  should  be  allowed  to 
remain.  In  all  good  seasons  the  bunches 
must  be  thinned  out  as  soon  as  they  set. 

The  Diana  we  have  placed  third.  It  makes 
a  wine  but  little  inferior  to  the  Delaware  when 
the  fruit  is  fully  ripe ;    it  is  not,  however,  so 

13 


194  American  Grape  Culture. 

pure  and  refined  in  its  flavor.  The  peculiar 
odor  of  the  fruit  of  the  Diana  is  objected  to  by 
many  who  have  not  seen  it  when  fully  ripe 
and  in  its  best  condition.  This  aroma  is  not, 
it  must  be  admitted,  very  pleasant;  the  ripen- 
ing process,  however,  works  it  mostly  off,  and 
the  matured  fruit  becomes  an  excellent  vinous 
grape,  but  still  slightly  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  its  odor.  The  Diana  does  not  occupy 
its  proper  place,  and  perhaps  never  Avill  till 
its  treatment  is  better  understood,  and  we  are 
content  to  wait  for  its  best  fruit  till  the  vine 
acquires  age.  It  is,  notwithstanding,  a  good 
wine  grape. 

The  Allen\s'  Hybrid  was  placed  in  tliis  group 
because  is  to  a  good  degree  a  vinous  grape. 
It  is  not,  however,  sufficiently  hardy  for  general 
cultivation.  Its  tenderness  shrinks  from  the 
open  exposure  of  the  vineyard,  where  it  soon 
dwindles  and  dies.  It  is  really  to  be  regretted 
that  such  an  excellent  grape  can  not  be  made 
more  useful. 

The  Oataiola  is  placed  last,  because  its 
vinous  qualities  are  the  least  of  all  the  grapes 
in  this  group.  The  fibrous,  acid  center  must 
always  more  or  less  impair  the  quality  and 
durability  of  the  wine.     Its  wine  is  good ;  but, 


Description  of  Yarieties.  195 

compared  witli  Diana,  Delaware,  or  lona,  is 
wanting  in  purity,  refinement,  and  life.  It  is 
not  a  wine  of  high  flavor  in  any  true  sense, 
although  it  be  strongly  marked;  it  impresses 
the  mouth  and  lips,  but  passes  the  j)al'ate 
with  but  little  pleasurable  sensation.  Thus 
we  have  found  it  always  when  purest  and 
best ;  and  even  then  it  has  not  richness  enough 
to  cover  its  rather  decided  acidity.  The 
crops  of  1854  and  1859  ripened  uncommonly 
well,  and  hence  the  vintages  of  those  years 
gave  the  best  Catawba  wine  that  has  yet 
been  put  in  the  market.  It  was  very  good. 
The  truth  is,  a  grape  may  be  vinous  in  its 
character;  may  contain  in  itself  the  chief 
elements  of  wine;  yet,  if  these  are  not  duly 
combined,  and  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  fully 
and  uniformly  in  all  its  parts,  it  can  not  make 
a  perfect  wine.  The  imperfections  in  the  grape 
will  appear  in  the  wine,  and  not  only  impair 
its  goodness,  but  hasten  the  period  of  decay  in 
proportion  as  these  imperfections  may  exist  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree. 

We  have  omitted  from  the  Avine  list  the 
Isabella  and  Concord,  and  all  grapes  of  the 
Isabella  class.  We  always  have  a  reason  for 
what  we  do ;  in  this  case  it  consists  in  the  fact 


196  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

that  tliey  are  not  wine  grapes,  if  we  know  vvliat 
wine  is.  The  elements  which  make  real  and 
durable  wine  are  not  combined  in  any  one  of 
them  in  such  degree  and  proportion  as  to 
render  the  manufacture  of  true  and  durable 
wine  possible.  Sparkling  wines  are  made  from 
them,  and  also  from  cider ;  but  this  does  not 
prove  much.  The  majority  of  them  have  tough, 
fibrous  centers,  that  never  ri^^eu,  and  supply 
an  element  incompatible  with  the  manufactui*e 
of  good  wine,  the  presence  of  which  prevents 
the  perfection  of  the  process.  Others  only 
become  tender  at  the  center  by  the  breaking 
down  of  the  mass  by  incipient  decay,  and  not 
by  ripening;  and  maturity  acquired  in  this 
way  is  not  calculated  to  enhance  the  goodness 
of  any  wine.  The  very  few  that  do  ripen  make 
a  feeble,  flat  wine,  and  all  of  them  soon  run  to 
vinegar.  These  serious  defects  are  in  many 
cases  met  and  overcome  by  the  addition  of 
sugar,  alcohol,  and  other  adulterations,  which 
at  once  place  the  resulting  liquor  outside  of 
our  conception  and  definition  of  wine.  All 
attempts  to  make  wine  from  such  grapes  must 
necessarily  end  in  failure.  We  would  here 
make  a  suggestion.  There  is  always  a  good 
market  for  vinegar  :    a   fine  article  will   com- 


Description  of  Varieties.  197 

mand  as  liigli  a  price  as  poor  wine.  Tliese 
grapes,  when  not  too  "foxy,"  will  make  fine 
vinegar.  Let  tliem  therefore  be  devoted  to 
a  purpose  more  consistent  with  their  character. 
It  will  pay  very  much  better  than  to  Avaste 
capital  and  labor  in  efforts  to  make  wine 
where  there  is  none. 

But  it  is  claimed  that  the  Concord  is  an 
exception.  Let  us  briefly  examine  this  claim. 
It  is  said  that  the  Concord  at  the  West  is  a 
much  better  grape  than  it  is  at  the  East.  We 
have  been  at  much  pains  to  procure  the  fruit 
from  the  West,  and  we  are  comj^elled  to  say 
that  we  can  see  no  difference  between  a  Con- 
cord of  the  West  and  a  Concord  of  the 
East,  both  being  equally  ripe.  This  claim  has 
no  foundation  in  fact ;  an  equally  ripened  Con- 
cord is  the  same  in  both  places.  It  is  doubtless 
true  that  it  often  ripens  much  better  at  the 
Southwest  than  it  does  at  the  Northeast ;  and 
that  has  probably  given  rise  to  the  impression 
that  it  is  quite  a  different  fruit  at  the  West. 
It  is  also  claimed  that  the  Concord  at  the 
West  can  and  does  make  real  and  excellent 
wine.  We  have  tasted  it  doctored  and  mixed, 
and  know  what  it  is  in  that  state.  We 
have   taken    much   trouble  to  have   procured 


198  AMERiCAisr  Grape  Culture. 

for  us  samples  of  Concord  wine  from  the 
cellars  of  some  of  the  best  known  makers 
at  the  West,  with  the  solemn  assurance  that 
it  was  pure,  unadulterated  Concord ;  and  we 
have  no  doubt  of  it.  A  recently  procured 
bottle  of  the  pure  Concord  is  l^efore  us  as  we 
write.  We  shall  not  undertake  the  impossible 
task  of  describing  it,  further  than  saying,  that 
this,  at  least,  resembles  any  thing  but  wine. 
We  can  not  drink  it ;  neither  can  our  friends. 
It  is  certainly  very  j^eculiar.  If  the  leopard 
never  changes  his  spots,  neither  does  the 
"  fox  "  his  odor.  We  wish  to  be  good-natured 
about  it;  but  the  fact  is,  we  are  positively 
ashamed  of  our  own  face  when  we  taste  it. 
As  the  result  of  our  investigations,  we  are 
forced  back  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  Con- 
cord is  not  a  wine  grape,  even  at  the  West. 

In  addition  to  the  leading  varieties  already 
described,  there  are  other  kinds  more  or  less 
prominently  before  the  public,  which  may  be 
briefly  noticed  here. 

UOTOE"     VILLAGE. 

The    Union    Village    originated   with    the 
Shakers   of  Union   Village,    Ohio,  whence  its 


Description  of  Varieties.  199 

name.     The  vine  is  pretty  hardy,  and  perhaps 
the  rankest  grower  of  all  our  native  kinds,  the 
wood,  leaves,  and  fruit  being  of  extraordinary 
size.     The  bunch  is  extra  large,  compact,  and 
shouldered.     The  color  is  dark  purple,  with  a 
light  bloom.     The  berry  is  extra  large,  (often 
an  incli  in  diameter,)  round,  and  lias  a  moder- 
ately thick  skin.     The  flesh  has  a  fibrous  cen- 
ter, small   in   j)roportion   to   the   size    of    the 
berry,  but  is  tender  and  juicy  near  the  skin. 
The  juice  is  sweet,  and  a  little  sprightly,  but 
not  vinous  or  high  flavored.     It  resembles  the 
Isabella  in  quality,  and  is  no  doubt  a  seedling 
from  it.     For  a  fruit  of  only  moderate  quality, 
its  large  size  becomes  a  positive  fault.     Such  a 
mass  of  flesh,  of  only  negative  goodness,  when 
taken  into  the  mouth,  becomes  really  distasteful 
from  its  quantity.     The  bunch,  however,  is  mag- 
nificent, resemblino;  a  well-s-rown  Black  Ham- 
burgh.     The   vine   is   somewhat   tender  when 
young,  and   should    always  be  covered.     The 
fruit  ripens  about  a  week  before  tLe  Isabella. 
The   Ontario  is  identical  mth  the  Union  Vil- 
lage. 

EEBECCA. 

The  Rebecca  originated  witli  Mrs.  Peake,  of 
Hudson,   N.    Y.,  after  whom    it  was    named. 


200  American  Grape  Culture. 

Tlie  vine  is  not  very  hardy,  but  a  fair  grower, 
though  the  wood  is  not  large.  It  is  easily 
trained.  The  bunch  is  of  medium  size,  very 
compact,  and  usually  shouldered,  except  on 
young  vines.  The  color  is  green,  tinged  with 
amber,  which  becomes  quite  deep  on  the  sunny 
side,  and  has  a  fine  white  bloom.  The  berry 
is  of  good  medium  size,  roundish  oval,  with  a 
thin  skin.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  juicy,  with 
very  little  fiber.  The  juice  is  sweet  and  a 
little  vinous,  with  a  very  pleasant  flavor. 
There  is  a  slight  trace  of  the  native  odor  in 
the  unripe  fruit.  The  Rebecca  ripens  quite  to 
the  center,  and  has  consequently  been  much 
esteemed  as  a  table  grape.  In  some  localities, 
generally  where  the  soil  is  clayey,  it  has  done 
well ;  but  it  is  not  recommended  for  vineyard 
culture,  and  often  fails  in  the  garden.  It 
ripens  nearly  two  weeks  before  the  Isabella. 

YORK    MADEIRA. 

The  Yorh  Madeira  is  an  old  variety,  and 
originated  at  York,  Pa.  It  may  be  remarked 
liere  that  there  are  two  grapes  known  by  this 
name,  a  large  and  a  small  one,  the  latter  being 
the  true  York  Madeira.  The  vine  is  not  very 
hardy,  often  losing  its  leaves,  and  consequently 


Description  of  Varieties.  201 

failing  to  ripen  its  crop.  The  bunch  is  of 
medium  size,  compact,  and  generally  lias  a 
small  slioulder.  The  color  is  dark  purple, 
with  a  light  bloom.  The  berry  is  of  medium 
size,  roundish  oval,  with  a  tolerably  thin  skin. 
The  flesh  has  a  fll^rous,  acid  center.  The  juice 
is  very  sweet,  somewhat  sprightly,  and  pleasant 
flavored.  In  quality  it  is  l)etter  than  the 
Isabella,  and  ripens  a  week  before  it.  Canhijs 
August  is  the  same. 

ELSINGBURGH. 

The  1l  Isinghurgh  came  from  a  village  of  this 
name  in  New- Jersey,  beyond  which  nothing 
seems  to  be  known  of  its  origin.  It  is  hardy, 
and  a  good  grower.  The  bunch  is  large, 
rather  loose,  and  shouldered.  The  color  is  a 
dark,  purplish  black,  covered  with  a  bluish 
white  bloom.  The  berry  is  veiy  small  and 
round,  with  a  very  thin  skin.  The  flesh  ad- 
heres slightly  to  the  skin,  and  is  tender  and 
melting,  with  no  fibrous  center.  The  juice  is 
pure  and  sweet,  with  a  rich  vinous  flavor.  Its 
excellent  quality  makes  it  desirable  where  va- 
riety is  wanted  for  the  garden.  It  ripens  about 
a  week  before  the  Isabella. 


202  American  Grape  Culture. 

cliisttok 

The  Clinton  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  Monroe  Co.,  K  Y.  It  is  hardy,  an  exceed- 
ingly vigorous  grower,  has  long  joints,  and  is 
very  impatient  of  restraint.  Color,  dark  pur- 
ple, covered  with  a  light  bloom.  The  bunch  is 
medium,  very  compact,  and  shouldered.  The 
berry  is  small,  round,  with  a  thick,  very  acrid 
skin.  The  flesh  has  a  tough  acid  center. 
The  juice  remains  sharj)ly  acid  till  after  frost, 
when  it  becomes  sweet,  with  some  vinous  spirit. 
It  is  not  a  table  grape,  and  will  only  make  a 
poor  wine,  by  the  aid  of  sugar.  It  becomes 
black  early,  but  is  not  edible  till  touched  by 
frost.  The  Golden  Clinton  is  a  sub-variety, 
differing  in  color,  and  producing  a  poorer 
fruit. 

TO   KALON. 

The  To  Kalon  originated  with  Dr.  Spofford, 
of  Lansingburgh,  N.  Y.  It  is  hardy,  and  a 
vigorous  grower.  The  bunch  is  large,  moder- 
ately compact,  and  shouldered.  The  color  is  a 
dark  bluish  purple,  thickly  covered  with  bloom. 
The  berry  is  large,  varying  in  form,  but  is 
mostly  oblate.  The  flesh  becomes  tender  al- 
most  to   the  center,    with    but    little    unripe 


Desceiption  of  Vaeieties,  203 

toughness.  The  juice  is  sugary  and  sweet, 
with  a  delicate  and  very  pleasant  flavor. 
When  grown  under  favorable  conditions,  the 
vine  is  productive  and  the  fruit  excellent ; 
but  the  crop  is  often  lost  from  mildew  and  rot. 
It  rij)ens  about  a  week  before  the  Isabella. 

TAYLOE    OR   BULLITT. 

The  Taylor  or  Bullitt  originated  near  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  and  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Taylor. 
It  is  hardy,  and  a  vigorous  grower.  The  bunch 
is  small,  compact,  and  sets  unevenly.  The 
color  is  green,  tinged  with  amber.  The  berry 
is  small,  round,  with  a  moderately  thick  skin. 
The  flesh  has  but  little  fiber  or  unrij^eness  at 
the  center.  The  juice  is  sweet,  spicy,  and 
spirited,  but  a  little  rough  or  harsh.  The 
vine  is  not  very  productive. 

MILES. 

The  Miles  originated  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  introduced  by  Mr.  Hoopes,  of  Chester.  It  is 
hardy,  and  a  good  grower.  The  bunch  is  under 
medium  size,  compact,  and  shouldered.  The 
color  is  a  dark  bluish  pur23le,  with  a  light 
bloom.  The  berry  is  under  medium  size  and 
round.  The  flesh  is  tender,  with  but  little 
unripe  fiber.     The  juice  is  pleasant,  but  rather 


204  American  Grape  Culture. 

sub-acid  than  sweet,  Avitli  very  little  if  any  of 
the  "foxy"  odor.  It  is  a))out  ten  days  earlier 
than  tlie  Isabella. 

AT^lSTA, 

The  Anna  originated  ^vith  Mr.  Eli  Has- 
broiick,  of  Newbiirgli.  It  is  a  seedling  of  the 
Catawba.  It  is  hardy,  and  a  good  grower 
The  bunch  is  large,  moderately  compact,  and 
shouldered.  The  color  is  green  in  the  shade, 
covered  with  a  thick  pearly  bloom,  and  dotted 
with  claret ;  but  in  the  light  it  becomes  bright 
amber.  The  beriy  is  large,  round,  with  a  mod- 
erately thick  skin.  The  flesh  is  somewhat 
meaty,  and  has  a  fibrous  center,  Avhich  is  very 
tough  and  acid  when  only  partially  ripe ;  but 
when  fully  mature,  the  juice  is  sweet  and  vin- 
ous with  a  pure  and  spicy  muscat  flavor.  It 
begins  to  ripen  early,  but  does  not  reach  ma- 
turity till  the  end  of  the  season.  Like  its 
parent,  it  is  disposed  to  rot  in  unfavorable 
seasons,  and  is  not  adapted  to  general  cultiva- 
tion. 

EOGERS'S   HYBRIDS. 

Mogers's  Hybrids  originated  with  Mr.  Kogers 
of  Salem,  Mass.  Much  interest  attaches  to 
these  seedlings,  though  we  can  not  accept  the 
idea  of  their  being  hybrids  as  fully  established 


Description  of  Yarieties.  205 

by  tlie  cliaracter  of  the  fruit  or  tlie  liabits  of 
the  vine.  They  are  all  a  great  improvement  on 
the  wild  native  vine,  and  many  of  them  are  bet- 
ter than  the  Concord ;  but  they  all  have  the 
native  characteristics  strongly  marked,  M'hile 
none  of  them  possess  the  peculiar  character- 
istics of  the  foreign  grape.  We  may  instance 
Allen's  Hybrid  as  being  strikingly  different,  in 
these  respects,  from  any  of  Mr.  E-ogers's  seed- 
lings. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Rogers  did 
not  test  them  all,  and  make  a  selection  of  three 
or  four  of  the  best,  instead  of  putting  that  office 
upon  the  public ;  and  yet  we  can  not  blame 
him  for  not  having  done  tins,  well  knowing 
the  expenditure  of  time  and  money  it  involves. 
Our  knowledge  of  these  seedlings,  acquired  by 
six  years'  experience,  leads  us  to  divide  them 
into  three  classes,  according  to  color,  making 
No.  4  the  type  of  all  the  dark  ones,  No.  15  the 
type  of  the  red  ones,  and  No.  1  of  the  light 
ones.  No.  19  so  strongly  resembles  No.  4,  and 
No.  3  so  strongly  resembles  No.  15,  that  those 
who  have  the  former  would  find  their  collec- 
tion but  little  enriched  by  additional  numbers. 
There  is  such  a  strong  general  resemblance 
among  these  seedlings,  that  w^e  shoidd  not  be 
much  surprised  to  learn  that  one  parent  had 


206  American  Grape  Culture. 

produced  tliern  all.  While  iu  vinous  spirit, 
freedom  from  foxiness,  and  ability  to  ripen  to 
the  center,  none  of  them  rise  to  the  rank  of  first 
quality,  all  of  the  four  named  may,  in  these 
respects,  be  placed  considerably  above  the 
Concord.  If  they  could  be  advanced  another 
step  beyond  that  they  have  already  taken  from 
the  original,  they  would  be  very  good  indeed  ; 
and  we  think  this  may  be  done  by  a  proper 
observance  of  the  well-known  laws  of  thorough 
breeding,  though  not,  perhaps,  in  one  genera- 
tion. We  will  now  describe  the  three  that 
have  ])een  selected  as  types  of  color.  We  may 
say  that  all  of  them  are  hardy,  and  good 
growers. 

No.  1  is  large,  of  a  light  amber  green  color, 
often  with  a  shade  of  light  crimson,  and  some- 
times mottled  with  dark  crimson.  The  flesh  is 
disposed  to  tenderness,  and  has  but  a  moderate 
amount  of  impurity  in  its  flavor ;  but  it  is 
wanting  in  richness  and  spirit,  in  these  respects 
falling  below  Nos.  4  and  15.  There  are  several 
light  colored  ones,  (commonly  called  white,) 
but  none  equal,  on  the  whole,  to  the  best  dark 
colored. 


Description  of  Varieties.  207 


No.  4  has  large  bunclies,  generally  sliouldered. 
Color  purple,  witli  a  light  bloom.  Berry  large, 
nearly  round,  with  a  rather  tender  but  some- 
what acrid  skin,  with  considerable  "  foxy"  odor. 
The  flesh  is  buttery,  with  a  filjrous,  acid  center, 
which  the  rij^ening  process  never  reaches.  The 
juice  is  sweet,  somewhat  sprightly,  and  moder- 
ately vinous,  but  with  that  deficiency  in  anima- 
tion that  characterizes  all  of  what  we  have  des- 
ignated as  the  Isabella  family.  It  ripens  about 
ten  days  before  the  Isabella. 

EOGEES'S    jSTO.    15. 

No.  15,  rather  large  bunch,  moderately  com- 
pact. Color,  reddish  copper.  Berry  large, 
nearly  round,  with  a  rather  tender  skin.  In 
other  respects,  the  same  as  No.  4. 

We  notice  next  the  group  of  small  wine 
grapes,  alluded  to  on  a  former  page.  They  are 
of  Southern  origin,  and  are  not  extensively 
grown,  though  they  are  true  wine  grapes. 

HEEBEMONT. 

The  Herhemont  is  of  Southern  origin.  It  is  a 
very  handsome  vine,  and  not  very  hardy,  espe- 


208  American  Grape  Culture. 

cially  when  young,  but  a  very  strong  grower. 
The  bunch   is   very  large,  very  compact,  and 


> 


Fig.  1041.— Herberaont. 

slioulclerefl.  The  color  is  a  dark  bluish  purple, 
thickly  covered  with  a  light  bloom.  The  berry 
is  very  small,  round,  with  a  thin  skin.  The 
flesh  is  tender  and  melting.  The  juice  is  sweet, 
pure,  and  refined,  wuth  a  rich,  sprightly  vinous 
flavor.  The  Herbemont  is  an  excellent  table 
and  wine  grape,  but  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  for 
the  vineyard  at  the  Nortli.  It  does  very  well 
in  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of  New- York,  but 
young  vines  especially  should  always  be  covered 


Description  of  Varieties.  209 

in  winter.  It  is  an  abundant  bearer,  and  re- 
quires a  longer  season  than  the  Isabella  for  the 
full  maturity  of  its  fruit. 

LINCOLN. 

The  Lincoln  is  also  a  Southern  grape.  For 
a  time  it  was  thought  to  be  identical  with  the 
Lenoir.  The  vine  is  a  vigorous  grower,  more 
hard}^  than  the  Herbemont,  and  ripens  its  fruit 
earlier.  The  bunch  is  of  moderate  size,  com- 
pact, and  shouldered.  The  color  is  a  dark  pur- 
ple, covered  with  a  light  bloom.  The  berry  is 
small,  round,  with  a  thin  skin.  The  flesh  is 
tender,  and  ripens  quite  to  the  center.  The 
juice  is  sweet  and  sugary,  with  a  rich  vinous 
flavor.  The  Lincoln  is  an  excellent  table  and 
wine  grape.  The  bunches  are  not  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  wood  and  leaf,  and  the  vine  is 
consequently  only  moderately  productive.  It 
ripens  about  a  week  before  the  Isabella. 

LENOIE. 

The  Lenoir  takes  its  name  from  Lenoir  Co., 
North-Carolina,  of  which  it  is  said  to  be  a  na- 
tive. It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  pre- 
ceding in  the  fruit  and  vine,  but  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  leaves.     The  bunch  is  of  me- 

14 


210  American  Grape  Culture. 

dium  size,  compact,  and  shouldered.  The  color 
is  a  dark  bluish  purple,  thickly  covered  with  a 
light  bloom.  The  beriy  is  small  and  round. 
The  flesh  is  tender,  and  ripens  uniformly.  The 
juice  is  sweet  and  sugary,  with  a  pure,  rich 
vinous  flavor.  It  is  an  excellent  table  and  wine 
grape.  It  ripens  nearly  two  weeks  before  the 
Isabella. 

Norton's  Virginia. 

The  Norton^s  Virginia  is  likewise  of  South- 
ern origin.  It  is  not  very  hardy,  but  a  vigorous 
grower.  The  bunch  is  large,  quite  compact,  and 
often  double  shouldered  or  wins-ed.  The  color 
is  a  very  dark  purple,  thickly  covered  with  a 
light  bloom.  The  berry  is  very  small,  round, 
with  a  thin  skin.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  melt- 
ing quite  to  the  center.  The  juice  is  sweet, 
vinous,  spirited,  and  rich  in  extractive  matter, 
somewhat  like  that  which  distinguishes  Port 
wine.  The  Norton  is  grown  chiefly  for  wine, 
making  a  rather  lieavy,  rough  claret,  free  from 
all  "  foxy "  aroma.  The  must  is  rich,  and  is 
often  added  to  the  juice  of  the  Concord  to  im- 
prove it  and  make  it  durable. 

The  following  may  be  simply  noted : 
Bland^  (Southern,)  long,  loose  bunch,  good 


Description  OF  Varieties.  211 

medium  sized,  round,  berry,  pale  red  color,  acid 
center,  pleasant  flavor ;  ripens  late. 

BrinckU,  (Philadelpliia,)  large  buncli,  large, 
round  berry,  purple  color,  tender  flesh,  some- 
what vinous  flavor;  ripens  late;  is  essentially 
foreign,  and  mildews. 

Alexande?%  (York,  Pa.,)  large,  compact 
bunch,  large,  roundish  oval  berry,  purple  color, 
tough,  fibrous  center,  sweet ;  ri]3ens  in  mid- 
season. 

Ganhij's  August^  same  as  Yorlc  Madeira. 

Cassady,  (Philadelphia,)  medium  compact 
bunch,  small,  round  berry,  amber  green  color, 
tough,  acid  center ;  ripens  late. 

Montgoinery^  foreign;  possibly  a  seedling. 

OliikVs  Siipej'h,  foreign  seedling. 

Clara,  (Philadelphia,)  medium  loose  bunch, 
medium  round  berry,  amber  green  color,  pleas- 
ant flavor ;  ripens  mid-season ;  claimed  as  a 
foreign  seedling  by  Mr.  Kaabe. 

JEmily,  (Philadelphia,)  also  claimed  as  a  for- 
eign seedling  by  Mr.  Raabe,  by  whom  two  va- 
rieties were  sent  out  bearing  this  name;  one 
proved  to  be  foreign,  and  the  other  the  Moun- 
tain Grape  of  Virginia. 

Garrigues^    (Philadelphia,)   in   all    respects 


312  American  Grape  Culture. 

like  the  Isabella,  except  that  it  ripens  a  few 
days  before  it. 

6^7'<2A«m,(Philadelphia,)  medium  loose  bunch, 
large,  round  berry,  purple  color,  tough  center, 
feeble  flavor ;  ripens  late. 

Hyde^s  Eliza,  (Catskill,  N.  Y.,)  strongly  re- 
sembles the  Isabella,  but  scarcely  equal  to  it. 

Louisa,  (Calmdale,  Pa.,)  ripens  about  a  week 
before  Isabella,  and  much  like  it. 

Mammoth  Catawba,  a  large  Catawba,  but 
much  inferior  in  flavor. 

Marion,  large  compact  bunch,  laige,  roundish 
oval  berry,  purple  color,  tough  center,,  austere 
flavor  ;  colors  early,  but  ripens  late. 

Meade's  Seedling  is  nearly  or  quite  identical 
with  the  Catawba. 

McNeil,  medium  comjiact  bunch,  medium 
oval  berry,  purple  color,  tough  center,  brisk  and 
pungent;  ripens  late. 

McCowan,  bunch  and  berry  small,  flesh  tough, 
acid,  and  harsh  ;  has  no  value. 

Alhino,  medium  compact  bunch,  small  oval 
berry,  amber  green  color,  tough  center,  low  fla- 
vor ;  ripens  late. 

Mavij  Ann,  long  compact  bunch,  large  oval 
beny,  purple  color,  tough  fibrous  center,  feeble 
flavor ;  ripens  early. 


Description  of  Varieties.  213 

WrigMs  Isabella  resembles  Clinton,  but  has 
larger  beriies. 

Alvey^  if  not  Lenoir,  is  so  like  it  as  to  be 
scarcely  distinguishable. 

Logan,  large  compact  bunch,  large  oval  ber- 
ry, purple  color,  tough  center,  low  foxy  flavor; 
quite  early,  beginning  to  ripen  about  ten  days 
before  the  Isabella.  It  was  first  known  as  Ur- 
bana,  and  re-named  by  Mr.  Campbell.  It  has 
also  been  confounded  with  Rulander,  a  foreign 
grape. 

Wilmington,  (Delaware,)  large  compact 
bunch,  large  round  berry,  whitish  or  amber 
green  color,  unripe  center,  rich  vinous  flavor : 
ripens  very  late. 

Flora,  (Philadelphia,)  small,  very  compact 
bunch,  ratlier  small  round  berry,  purple  color, 
unripe  acid  center,  sweet  and  pleasant  flavor: 
ripens  a  few  days  before  the  Isabella. 

Honey  Grape,  (Philadelphia,)  small  compact 
bunch,  small  round  berry,  small  unripe  center, 
very  sweet  and  sugary :  ripens  with  Isabella. 

Mottled  Catawba,  (Carpenter  of  Kelley's  Is- 
land, Ohio,)  is  like  Catawba,  except  that  the 
bemes  are  mottled. 

Lydia,  (Carpenter  of  Kelley's  Island,  Ohio,) 
large  compact  bilnch,  large  roundish  oval  berry, 


214  American  Grape  Culture. 

pale  amber  green  color,  unripe  center,  pleasant 
flavor :  ripens  late. 

Elizabeth^  (Western  New- York,)  large  com- 
pact bunch,  large  oval  berry,  dull  green  color, 
unripe  center,  feeble  flavor :  ripens  late. 

ColemarCs  White,  medium  compact  bunch, 
oval  berry,  pale  amber  green  color,  unripe  center, 
pretty  good  quality,  but  late  and  unproductive. 

Cuyahoga  is  Ooleman^s  White  revived  under 
another  name. 

Maxatawny,  (Pennsylvania,)  compact  bunch, 
round  berry,  tough  center,  rich  vinous  flavor, 
but  ripens  very  late. 

The  Scuppernong  is  a  Southern  grape,  with 
a  very  small  bunch,  and  large  round  berry, 
tough,  fibrous  center,  thick  skin,  sweet  juice,  and 
a  strong,  unpleasant  aroma.  It  is  the  Southern 
"  fox."  The  berries  drop  as  soon  as  ripe.  There 
are  two  kinds,  a  light  and  a  dark-colored  one. 

The  Kansas  July  is  a  very  early  grape,  from 
Kansas,  bearing  small  bunches  of  very  small 
berries,  quite  meaty  and  very  sweet.  The  vine 
is  very  handsome. 

The  Eureka  is  identical  with  Diana, 

Manhattan,  (New- York  City,)  small,  compact 
bunch,  medium-sized  berry,  amber  green  color, 


Description  of  Varieties.  215 

tough  center,  good  flavor;  unproductive,  and 
ripens  late. 

Aiken,  an  Isabella  producing  large  fruit 
under  peculiarly  favorable  conditions. 

Cunniiigliam^  a  grape  of  the  Soutliern  family, 
scarcely  distinguisliable  from  the  Lenoir. 

Rentz,  (Cincinnati,)  large,  loose  bunch,  pui-- 
ple  color,  large,  round  berry,  with  the  flesh  and 
odor  of  the  wild  grape. 

Yeddo,  from  Japan,  and  altogether  too  tender 
for  our  climate. 

Cynthianaj  a  purple  grape,  said  to  be  from 
Arkansas.  It  has  the  flesh  and  odor  character- 
istic of  the  wild  grape. 

The  Charter  Oak,  North  America,  Cdrail, 
Northern  Muscadine,  Dracn.it  (so-called)  Amber, 
UnderhiUs  Seedling,  Perhins,  Sage,  Massachu- 
setts White,  Minei^s  Seedling,  et  id  omne  genus, 
may  be  disposed  of  in  a  few  words  as  unmiti- 
gated "  foxes  "  from  the  woods. 

There  are  several  seedling  grapes  that  have 
either  just  been  given  to  the  public,  or  probably 
will  be,  in  regard  to  most  of  which  but  little  is 
known. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  not 
some  means  by  which  seedlings  could  be  thor- 
oughly tested  in  various  parts  of  the  country 


216  American  Grape  Culture. 

before  they  are  sent  out  to  the  public.  If  three 
or  four  unprofessional  men,  living  in  different 
sections,  could,  by  common  consent,  be  selected 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  seedlings  and  newly 
introduced  fruits,  much  disappointment  and 
expense  would  be  saved  to  fruit  growers  gen- 
erally. It  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to  find 
competent  and  disinterested  men  who  could 
give  the  necessary  time  to  the  task,  or  who 
would  be  willing  to  undertake  the  labor ;  yet 
it  would  be  a  profound  satisfaction  to  know 
that  the  fruit  we  are  planting  is  precisely  what 
it  is  represented  to  be.  We  shall  probably, 
however,  have  to  go  on  for  some  time  yet,  and 
take  our  chance.  Some  seedlings  stand  foi- 
years  so  exposed  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their 
hardiness  and  period  of  ripening  under  similar 
conditions  elsewhere ;  but  others  are  so  covered 
and  walled  in  as  to  prevent  us  from  gaining  any 
real  knowledge  on  these  points  till  it  has  lost 
most  of  its  value  to  the  public.  If  those  who 
raise  seedling  fruits  could  be  protected  in  their 
rights  by  law,  as  authors  and  inventors  now 
are,  the  way  would  be  opened  for  fully  testing 
fruits,  and  the  public  spared  the  mortification 
and  loss  not  only  of  planting  inferior  fruits,  but 
old  kinds  under  new  names,  and  the  production 


Description  of  Varieties.  217 

of  seedlings  would  be  encouraged,  and  the 
number  of  good  grapes  thereby  more  speedily 
increased.  A  man  who,  through  fraud  or 
otherwise,  plants  an  inferior  fruit,  supposing  it 
to  be  a  jTood  one,  loses  so  much  of  his  life  as  is 
wasted  in  proving  it:  a  loss  which  can  never 
be  repaired.     There  is  room  for  wise  legislation 

here. 

The  new  grapes  alluded  to  above  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

beackett's  seedling. 

Bracken's  Seedling,  large  in  bunch  and  berry, 
and  bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Union 
Village.     It  originated  near  Boston. 

DIANA   HAMBURGH. 

The  Diana  Hamhurgh  was  raised  by  Messrs. 
Moore  and  Charlton,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  who  say 
it  is  a  hybrid  between  the  Diana  and  Black 
Hamburgh.  It  resembles  the  Diana  very  closely 
in  quality,  the  flesh,  however,  being  more  meaty 
in  its  consistence,  and  the  skin  thinner  and 
darker.  It  is  supposed  to  ripen  late.  Of  the 
hardiness  and  general  character  of  the  vine  we 
know  nothing. 

FANCHER. 

The  FancTier  is  in  possession  of  Mr.  F.  B. 


218  American  Grape  Culture. 

Fanclier,  of  Troy,  N.  Y.  Having  examined  the 
vine  and  the  fruit  on  liis  grounds,  we  were  led 
to  the  conviction  that  it  is  identical  with  the 
Catawba.  We  could  perceive  no  difference  in 
the  wood,  foliage,  fruit,  and  general  habit  of 
the  plant,  It  is  affected  by  mildew  and  black 
rot  precisely  as  the  Catawba  is.  The  vine  is  so 
situated  as  to  favor  its  early  ripening ;  other 
vines,  similarly  located,  showed  as  much  ma- 
turity as  the  Fancher.  It  is  either  the  Catawba, 
or  a  pretty  exact  reproduction  of  it,  an  opinion 
which  half  a  dozen  or  more  examinations  of  the 
fruit  has  only  tended  to  confirm, 

SARATOGA. 

The  Saratoga  is  also  in  possession  of  Mr. 
Fancher.  His  published  account  says  he  got  it 
of  Dr.  James,  of  Waterford,  N.  Y.,  who  received 
it  twenty  years  ago  from  New-Orleans,  under 
the  name  of  Scaheran.  This  account  leaves  no 
doubt  whatever  that  the  Saratoga  and  the  Fan- 
cher are  one  and  the  same  grape. 

WALTER. 

The  Walter  originated  with  Mr.  A.  J.  Cay- 
wood,  at  Modena,  IST.  Y,  It  is  said  to  be  a  cross 
between  the  Diana  and  the  Delaware.     It  bears 


Desckiption  of  Varieties.  219 

a  very  close  resemblance  to  the  Diana,  of  wliich 
we  think  it  is  a  seedling.  It  has  the  same 
sweetness,  the  same  flavor,  and  the  same  con- 
sistency of  flesh ;  and  the  form,  size,  and  color 
of  the  bunch  and  berry  are  the  same.  Its  value 
will  depend  upon  its  hardiness,  vigor,  and  early 
ripening,  of  which  we  have  no  knowledge,  the 
vine  having  fruited  only  in  the  garden  of  the 
proprietor. 


MAPwTHA. 


The  Martha  was  raised  by  Mr.  Samuel  Miller, 
of  Calmdale,  Pa.  It  is  said  to  be  a  seedling 
of  the  Concord.  It  is  hardy,  and  a  strong 
grower.  The  bunch  is  of  good  size,  and  the 
berry  large,  of  a  pale  green,  a  little  warmed  with 
chocolate  or  copper  color.  It  has  a  buttery 
flesh,  an  unripe  acid  center,  and  a  sweet  juice, 
with  some  sprightliness,  but  no  vinous  flavor. 
Like  its  parent,  it  has  a  pretty  strong  "  foxy " 
odor. 

Dana's  seedlings. 

Of  DaruCs  Seedlings  we  know  nothing,  except 
that  some  of  them  are  said  to  be  promising,  and 
bear  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Kogers's  Hy- 
brids. 


220  American  Grape  Culture. 

EU5IELAN. 

The  Eumelan  sprang  up,  some  twenty  years 
ago,  in  the  yard  of  Mr.  Thorne,  at  the  end  of 
the  Long  Dock  at  Fishkill  Landing,  where  we 
should  little  expect  to  find  a  grape.  Mr. 
Thorne  died ;  and  his  brother,  perceiving  its  ex- 
cellence, determined  to  transplant  it  to  his  own 
grounds;  but  it  died  in  consequence  of  having  its 
roots  badly  broken  off  among  the  rocks.  A  few 
cuttings,  however,  had  been  taken  off,  and  from 
these  the  present  vines  were  grown.  We  know 
but  little  of  the  habit  of  the  vine,  except  that 
it  is  hardy,  ripens  early,  and  bears  good  crops. 
The  fruit,  however,  is  excellent,  and  entirely  dis- 
tinct, resembling  none  of  the  Isabella  family, 
except  in  color,  and  is  free  from  "  foxy "  odor. 
The  bunch  is  of  good  size  and  compact,  and  the 
berry  nearly  round,  of  a  deep  purple  or  bluish 
black  color,  and  thickly  covered  ^vith  a  light 
bloom.  The  flesh  is  thoroughly  tender  and 
melting,  ripening  uniformly  to  the  center,  and 
the  juice  sweet,  sprightly,  and  decidedly  vinous. 
It  is  a  pleasure  to  meet  a  grape  sometimes  that 
is  in  no  danger  of  being  confounded  with  some- 
thing else.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Dr. 
C.  W.  Grant. 

Of  most  of  the  following  new  kinds  we  have 


Description  of  Varieties.  221 

little  or  no  personal  knowledge  beyond  their 
names : 

jE'y^j  Black  IIaw\  Young  America^  and 
Macedonia,  seedlings  of  the  Concord,  raised  by 
Mr.  Samuel  Miller,  of  Calmdale,  Pa. 

ModenGy  a  seedling  of  the  Concord,  raised  at 
Modeua  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Cay  wood.  It  is  said  to 
resemble  the  Concord  in  quality,  out  is  smaller. 

PcBsclieVs  Mammoth^  represented  to  be  a 
large  fruit,  ripening  a  week  or  so  after  the 
Catawba. 

Lorain,  a  seedling  raised  at  Sandusky,  of 
which  we  know  nothins;  reliable. 
.  Hattus,  (perhaps  the  same  as  Hattie^  a  claret- 
colored  grape,  said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Ca- 
tawba, but  of  smaller  size  and  quite  acid. 

Laura,  raised  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Lum,  of  Sandus- 
ky, Ohio,  said  to  be  sweet,  but  "  foxy." 

FTamingliam,  (Boston,)  a  j^urple  grape,  re- 
sembling the  Hartford  Prolific,  but  having 
strono'er  native  characteristics. 

Dorr^s  Seedling,  said  to  have  been  raised 
from  the  Delaware,  which,  except  that  the 
berries  are  larger,  it  resembles  in  form,  color, 
and  bunch ;  but  it  has  the  coarse  flesh  and 
strono*  "foxy"  odor  of  the  wild  grape,  and  if 
really  a   seedling   of  the   Delaware,  possesses 


222  American  Grape  Culture. 

some  interest;  but  we  would  suggest  to  the 
originator  not  only  not  to  name  it  after  Mr. 
Downing,  as  proposed,  but  also  not  to  dissemi- 
nate it. 

Canadian  Hybrid^  raised  by  Mr.  Arnold, 
C.  W.  It  is  said  to  be  a  hybrid,  but  the  fruit 
shows  it  to  be  a  native  of  the  Isabella  family. 

ArnoWs  No.  1,  recently  figured  in  the  Gar- 
dener'^s  Monthly^  and  said  to  be  a  seedling  of 
the  Clinton.  The  bunch  and  berry  are  large. 
No  mention  is  made  of  its  quality. 

Charlotte^  said  to  resemble  the  Diana,  and 
ripen  as  early  as  the  Delaware. 

Telegraph  or  Christine,  represented  as  vigor- 
ous and  productive,  having  a  large  bunch  and 
berry,  and  ripening  before  the  Concord. 

Neff,  sometimes  also  called  the  Keiika, 
medium  sized  bunch  and  berry,  copper  color, 
with  tlie  flesh  and  "  foxy  "  odor  of  the  native : 
ripens  rather  early. 

Salem,  (No.  53  of  Eogers's  Hybrids,)  is  said 
by  Mr.  Rogers  to  be  the  best  of  his  seedlings. 
It  is  described  as  being  hardy,  vigorous,  and 
productive,  having  a  large  bunch  and  berry, 
sweet  and  sprightly,  and  ripening  as  early  as 
the  Hartford  Prolific  or  the  Delaware. 

Gai'penter,  raised  by  Mr.  Thompson,  of  Green 


Description  of  V^uiieties.  223 

Island,  near  Troy.  It  resembles  the  Black 
Hamburgli,  of  wliicli  it  is  a  seedling.  Having 
seen  it,  we  are  prepared  to  say  that  it  is  in  all 
respects  inferior  to  its  parent.  It  is  totally  un- 
fitted for  vineyard  culture,  in  common  with  all 
the  kinds  that  we  have  designated  as  foreign. 
Mr.  Thompson  has  a  number  of  other  seedlings, 
both  foreisrn  and  native,  and  of  these  the  Ca- 
tawba  seedling  is  the  only  one  that  approaches 
its  parent  in  excellence. 

Just  here  is  a  proper  place  for  a  few  remarks 
that  will  be  of  much  benefit  to  the  beginner. 
The  foreign  grape  has  been  so  often  and  so 
thoroughly  tried,  and  so  uniformly  failed,  that 
we  should  regret  to  see  the  experiment  repeated 
under  the  supposition  that  it  is  still  an  open 
one.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  variety  of  the 
foreign  grape  that  has  not  been  tried  in  every 
conceivable  variety  of  soil  and  locality,  and 
under  every  kind  of  treatment ;  they  have  been 
tried,  not  by  dozens  or  hundreds,  but  by  thou- 
sands, over  and  over  again.  Skill  and  money 
without  stint  have  been  lavished  upon  these 
experiments,  and  they  have  been  persisted  in 
for  years,  but  always  with  the  same  results,  and 
tliere  can,  therefore,  he  no  dou1)t  of  the  uniit- 
ness  of  the  foreign  grape  for  vineyard  culture 


224  American  Grape  Culture. 

here.  This  is  the  rule ;  but,  like  many  other 
rules,  it  has  its  exceptions.  Here  and  there  in 
cities,  and  in  a  few  sheltered  positions  possess- 
ing peculiarly  favorable  conditions  for  growing 
the  grape,  a  few  vines  of  the  Early  Black,  Mil- 
ler's Burgundy,  the  Chasselas,  or  even  the  Black 
Hamburgh,  have  been  grown  with  tolerable 
success,  the  fruit,  however,  falling  much  short 
of  its  characteristic  excellence,  being,  in  fact, 
quite  inferior  to  several  of  our  best  native 
varieties.  We  know,  indeed,  of  several  in- 
stances where  .the  Chasselas,  under  such  condi- 
tions, has  for  a  number  of  years  produced  mod- 
erate crops  of  inferior  fruit ;  but  such  sporadic 
instances  do  not  in  the  least  invalidate  the  fact, 
that  the  foreign  grape  is  wholly  unfitted  for 
vineyard  culture  here.  That  fact  will  I'emain 
intact  until  we  can  command  a  much  more  uni- 
form temperature  than  we  now  possess,  and  the 
hygrometric  conditions  of  our  atmosphere  have 
been  considerably  modified.  But  even  if  the 
foreign  grape  were  fitted  for  the  vineyard, 
wherein  consists  the  wisdom  of  introducing 
seedlings  inferior  to  their  parents  ? 


CHAPTER  Xm. 

TASTE,  AS    APPLIED    TO   FEUITS. 

We  must  add  here  some  remarks  on  tlie 
subject  of  taste^  in  its  application  to  fruits ; 
a  subject  that  can  only  be  fully  treated  in  an 
extended  essay.  We  msh,  however,  to  pre- 
sent some  facts  that  may  lead  the  general  pub- 
lic to  do  what  is  as  yet  done  only  by  com- 
paratively few,  to  regard  grape  culture  from  a 
higher  stand-point  than  they  have  heretofore 
done ;  and  to  point  out  to  them  the  source 
whence  they  can  draw  the  greatest  enjoy- 
ment in  the  use  of  the  products  of  the  vine. 
And  as  an  inseparable  part  of  the  subject, 
we  wish  to  indicate,  also,  some  of  the  reasons 
why  good  grapes  only  should  be  planted  in 
the  future. 

The  grape,  in  its  best  varieties,  is  truly  a 
nourishing  and  delicate  food^  possessing  val- 
uable hygienic  properties,  and  the  public  will 

15 


226  American  Grape  Culture. 

not  be  satisfied  with  those  that  are  indigesti- 
ble and  ill  flavored,  when  they  can  just  as 
well  have  those  that  are  tender  and  good. 
While  we  had  only  the  Isabella  and  Cataw- 
ba, a  necessity  was  laid  upon  us,  and  we  were 
constrained  to  be  content  with  them ;  but  we 
now  have  those  which  are  far  better,  upon 
which  we  can  really  feast.  We  have  only  to 
come  prepared  for  their  full  and  proper  en- 
joyment :  the  table  is  set,  and  all  who  will 
may  come  and  eat  of  the  best. 

The  public  taste,  so  far  from  having  been 
cultivated,  has  .been  depraved  by  the  use  of 
ill-flavored  and  indigestible  grapes.  The  force 
of  circumstances  has  compelled  it  to  remain 
so  for  a  time ;  but  there  is  no  longer  any  rea- 
son why  this  should  continue.  It  has  ceased 
to  be  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  has  now  be- 
come one  of  choice.  Each  one,  therefore,  in 
his  own  interest,  should  seek  to  free  his  taste 
from  the  bondage  in  which  it  has  been  held, 
and  rise  to  the  liberty  of  a  purer  enjoyment. 
Some  have  not  been  slow  to  do  this ;  and 
the  number  has  been  much  increased  by  those 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  foreign  grape. 
Experience,  gained  by  comparing  the  differ- 
ent   kinds,  will    soon    show   the    public  the 


Taste,  AS  applied  to  Fruits.  227 

broad  distinction  between  the  good  and  the 
bad,  and  they  will  not  be  slow  to  choose  the 
one  and  reject  the  other.  We  have  only  to 
show  them  that,  w^hile  the  good  yields  both 
nourishment  and  enjoyment,  the  bad  yields 
but  little  of  either,  and  they  will  be  at  no 
loss  which  to  select.  We  have  no  more  faith 
in  pandering  to  a  depraved  taste  in  matters  of 
food  and  drink,  than  we  have  in  pandering 
to  a  depraved  taste  in  morals,  literature,  or 
the  arts.  All  are  essentially  bad,  and  equally 
to  be  condemned. 

It  is  a  fallacy  to  suppose  that  poor  kinds 
of  grapes  can  be  grown  cheaper  than  good 
ones,  and  that  we  must  therefore  grow  the 
poor  kinds  for  the  "  million."  No  sensible  man 
should  try  to  deceive  himself  with  that  spe- 
cious kind  of  reasoning.  Good  grapes,  in 
this  "happy  land  at  least,  are  not  to  be  a  lux- 
ury for  one  class  alone.  They  can,  and  must, 
be  placed  within  the  reach  of  all,  rich  and 
poor  alike.  Taste  is  the  common  inheritance 
of  man,  and  not,  as  is  often  supposed,  some- 
thins;  which  follows  in  the  wake  of  wealth. 
It  is  sometimes  found  as  keen  and  apprecia- 
tive in  the  cottage  as  in  the  palace.  It  is 
doubtless  preserved  in  greater  purity  by  some 


228  American  Grape  Culture. 

classes  of  society  than  others,  and  always  will 
he ;  but  that  should  not  content  us ;  it  should 
rather  stimulate  us,  seeing  how  altogether 
beautiful  it  is,  to  induce  a  healthy  tone  in 
the  taste  of  all  classes  of  society.  We  must 
dismiss  the  illusion  that  a  poor  man,  simply 
because  he  is  poor,  can  not  appreciate  the  en- 
joyments of  taste ;  and  we  must  no  longer  do 
him  the  injustice  of  growing  for  his  special 
use  an  inferior  class  of  food.  The  "  millions  " 
must  have  as  good  grapes  and  as  good  grain 
as  the  "  tens."  It  is  their  right,  and  they  are 
beginning  to  comprehend  it.  There  is  a  power 
at  work  w^hich  will  at  no  distant  day  sweep 
from  the  market  every  grape  inferior  to  the 
Diana.  No  greater  service  could  be  performed 
for  both  grape  growers  and  .2:rape  consumers. 
We  can  already  see  the  beginning  of  the 
end.  Many  intelligent  vineyardists,  perceiv- 
ing the  impolicy  of  spending  their  capital  and 
labor  in  the  cultivation  of  inferior  varieties 
of  grapes,  are  replacing  them  by  better  kinds. 
Causes  are  at  work  w^hich  will  in  time,  and 
that  no  very  distant  time,  effect  a  complete 
revolution  in  our  estimate  of  the  value  of 
grapes  for  the  vineyard.  The  change,  indeed, 
is  now  going  on  pretty  fast,  and  it  would  be 


Taste,  as  applied  to  Fruits.  229 

at  least  wise  to  accept  what  must  and  ought 
to  be,  rather  than  to  fight  against  it.  It  is 
better  to  accept  the  situation  while  we  can  do 
it  without  loss,  than  to  wait  till  it  is  forced 
upon  us,  with  its  consequences.  It  would, 
notwithstanding,  in  many  cases,  be  a  hard, 
and  in  some  perhaps  an  impossible  task,  to 
convince  those  who  already  have  vineyards 
of  poor  kinds,  that  they  would  in  the  end 
be  gainers  by  immediately,  or  even  gradually, 
replacing  them  by  better  ones;  and  yet  we 
believe  this  to  be  strictly  true.  The  change, 
notwithstanding,  will  not  be  delayed;  having 
been  begun,  it  will  go  on  just  as  rapidly  as 
the  material  for  eifecting  it  can  be  produced. 
It  is  for  those,  however,  who  are  now  plant- 
ing vineyards  to  choose  wisely  as  to  the  part 
they  will  take  in  carrying  forwai'd  this  reform 
movement  in  grape  culture.  Happily,  they  are 
aiding  it  to  an  extent  that  could  hardly  have 
been  hoped  for,  so  largely  are  they  planting  the 
good  kinds ;  and  thus  the  movement  goes  on. 
There  will  be  a  strong  opposition  to  it,  no 
doubt,  on  the  part  of  some  who  have  vine- 
yards of  poor  kinds,  since  they  will  think  that 
it  involves  a  sacrifice  of  their  invested  inter- 
ests;   but  herein  they  will  most  certainly  be 


230  American  Grape  Culture. 

wrong,  as  a  little  calm  reflection  can  not  fail 
to  convince  them.  Their  trouble  will  consist 
in  preparing  the  way  for  calm  reflection  by 
first  casting  aside  their  prejudices.  Others 
will  continue  to  insist  that  poor  grapes  are  the 
grapes  for  the  "  million,"  and  not  deceive  even 
themselves ;  but  the  "  million  "  will  insist  that 
they  are  not,  by  eating  only  the  good ;  and  thus 
the  good,  in  the  end,  will  prevail  over  the  evil. 

For  many  years  the  conviction  was  strong, 
that  American  grape  culture  occupied  much 
too  low  a  position ;  and  that  an  intelligent  ap- 
plication of  the  means  within  our  reach  would 
greatly  improve  both  its  modes  and  material, 
lift  it  to  a  much  higher  level,  and  give  it  an 
important  place  among  the  chief  industrial  in- 
terests of  the  country.  Under  this  conviction 
a  movement  was  begun,  and  both  in  public  and 
private,  we  have  not  ceased  to  urge  it  on. 
The  movement  was  slow  at  first,  but  it  has 
gathered  numbers,  and  is  now  becoming  im- 
posing in  its  proportions.  We  propose  to  go 
on,  and  "fight  it  out  on  this  line,  if  it  takes 
all  the  summer  "  of  life.  Nothing  but  the  best 
of  grapes,  and  an  improved  public  taste  to  en- 
joy them,  will  satisfy  us. 

In  partaking  of  food  and  drink,  our  enjoy- 


Taste,  as  applied  to  Fruits.  231 

ment  is  mainly  a  matter  of  taste.  If  the  taste 
be  paralyzed  to  sucli  a  degree  that  the  food 
passes  the  palate  as  it  were  without  a  sensa- 
tion, eating  has  ceased  to  be  a  pleasure,  and 
fails,  in  a  measure,  to  perform  its  function  of 
supporting  the  body.  Eating  and  drinking 
are  necessary  to  sustain  life ;  but  both  were  in- 
tended to  be  a  pleasure  as  well  as  a  necessity. 
The  taste  may  become  so  depraved  as  at  last 
to  yield  us  no  appreciable  enjoyment  in  the 
act  of  doing  either ;  and  thus  we  may  sink  to 
the  level  of  mere  animals  in  all  that  pertains 
to  what  was  intended  to  be  one  of  the  purest 
pleasures  of  life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  taste 
may  become  so  vitiated  and  artificial  as  to  re- 
ceive but  little  pleasure  from  natural  flavors ; 
it  then  depends  for  excitement  upon  stimula- 
ting and  pungent  compounds.  We  say  excite- 
ment ;  for  the  capacity  to  receive  pleasure  from 
the  normal  exercise  of  the  sense  of  taste  is 
so  greatly  impaired,  that  the  nerves  must  be 
sharply  excited  to  produce  a  response,  which 
comes  quickly  and  as  quickly  passes  away. 
These  two  extremes  are  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon. There  are  persons  to  whom  all  flavors 
are  nearly  alike ;  and  there  are  others  who 
have    no    perception   of   flavor   except   in   its 


232  American  Grape  Culture. 

intensest  form.  The  last  are  insensible  to 
delicate  and  refined  flavors,  which  are  usually 
the  most  delightful  of  all ;  their  nerves  can  be 
excited  by  the  flavor  of  our  rankest  "  fox,"  but 
remain  insensible  to  the  delicate  and  pure 
flavor  of  a  Frontignan.  All  this  results  from 
abuse.  The  nerves  of  taste,  when  in  their 
natural  and  healthy  condition,  not  only  vibrate 
to  the  most  delicate  touch,  but  the  vibrations 
linger  like  those  of  a  musical  chord,  passing 
away  by  such  delicate  gradations,  that  we 
scarcely  know  when  they  cease.  Our  pleasure 
is  just  in  that  degree  prolonged. 

If  so  much  enjoyment  may  be  found  in  the 
natural  use  of  the  taste,  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  much  moment  to  preserve  its  healthy  tone. 
We  should  do  nothing  that  may  deprave  or 
vitiate  it ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  do  every  thing 
to  give  a  healthful  vigor  to  its  tone.  Still  fur- 
ther, we  should,  as  it  were,  so  educate  it  as  to 
discriminate  jDromptly  and  nicely  between  the 
good  and  the  bad  in  flavors,  and  thus  increase 
not  only  the  amount  but  the  degree  of  our  en- 
joyment. In  all  matters  of  taste,  whether  re- 
lating to  the  intellect  or  the  sensibilities,  our 
enjoyment  must  be  more  or  less  enhanced  by 
our  ability  to  perceive  even  the  nicest  shades 


Taste,  as  applied  to  Fruits.  233 

of  difference  in  any  object.  There  is  a  degree 
of  pleasure  in  the  very  consciousness  of  possess- 
ing the  power  to  do  so.  The  want  of  this  per- 
ceptive power  reduces  all  flavors,  good  and  bad 
alike,  to  one  common  level,  and  that  level  a  low 
one. 

We  have  the  evidence  of  this  before  us  eveiy 
day,  and  marvel  that  it  is  so  common.  What 
we  wish  to  do  here  is  to  impress  the  reader 
with  the  fact  that,  on  the  integrity  and  preser- 
vation of  his  taste,  will  depend  a  large  measure 
of  his  enjoyment.  As  gi-aj^e  eaters  and  wine 
drinkers,  the  great  mass  have  this  important 
lesson  to  learn.  They  have  yet  to  learn  that 
there  are  simple,  natural  pleasures,  arising  from 
the  ]3roper  use  of  taste,  which  are  far  more  sat- 
isfying and  enduring  than  any  derived  from  ar- 
tificial forms.  Such  knowledge  would  exercise 
a  beneficent  influence  on  intemperance  in  both 
eating  and  drinking. 

But  we  must  not  be  content  with  the  power 
simply  to  know  what  is  sweet  or  what  is  sour, 
or  what  is  essentially  good  or  essentially  bad ; 
we  must  not  stop  short  of  the  power  to  perceive 
all  the  gradations  which  connect  these  together. 
We  must  know  not  only  wherein  one  thina:  re- 
sembles  another,  but  wherein  they  diifer,  and 


234  American  Grape  Culture. 

in  what  the  difference  consists.  We  must  be 
able  not  only  to  recognize  the  excellence  of 
both,  but  to  know  wherein  one  is  better  than 
the  other,  and  why  it  is  better.  We  must  be 
able  not  only  to  appreciate  all  the  goodness  of 
the  Delaware  and  the  lona,  but  also  to  know 
wherein  and  why  the  lona  excels  the  Delaware ; 
what,  in  fact,  are  the  real  excellences  which 
place  the  lona  above  all  other  American  grapes. 
When  we  can  do  this,  we  shall  be  the  posses- 
sors of  real  knowledge,  and  know  what  its 
pleasures  are.  All  may  not  attain  to  this  im- 
mediately, or  by  intuition,  but  all  may  and 
should  strive  to  reach  it  quickly  by  prompt  and 
thorough  training;  of  the  taste.  In  all  that 
pertains  to  taste,  no  less  than  to  knowledge,  we 
should  seek  for  the  substance,  and  not  the 
shadow:  we  should  do  our  own  tasting  as  well 
as  our  own  thinking,  always  happy  in  having 
the  intelligent  in  sympathy  with  us. 

Our  taste,  at  present,  is  at  a  very  low  stand- 
ard ;  too  many  of  us  are  content  with  the  posi- 
tively coarse  and  bad,  to  the  neglect  of  the 
delicate  and  good.  Forced  by  circumstances  to 
begin  low,  we  are  too  easily  beguiled  into  re- 
maining so.  There  is  no  longer  any  excuse  for 
this ;   for  we  have  now  within  our  reach  the 


Taste,  as  applied  to  Fruits.  235 

means  of  gratifying  the  most  refined  percep- 
tions. Our  taste  for  grapes  really  began  in  the 
woods,  and  it  is  surprising  how  many  still  seek 
its  gratification  there,  unsatisfying  as  it  must 
be,  while  the  good  is  so  plainly  in  sight.  But  a 
movement  has  already  begun;  the  masses  are 
turning  their  faces  to  the  light ;  numbers  have 
already  reached  the  outskirts  of  the  woods,  and 
some  may  be  seen  wending  their  way  up  the 
fair  hill  of  culture,  rosy  with  the  excitement  of 
their  new-found  pleasure.  This  must  go  on  till 
the  great  body  of  the  people  are  able,  not  only 
to  distinguish  between  a  good  grape  or  a  good 
wine  and  a  poor  one,  but  also  to  appreciate  in 
good  grapes  and  wine  those  nice  shades  and 
degrees  of  flavor  which  givQ  a  distinctive  char- 
acter to  our  best  grapes  and  wines,  and  from 
which  is  derived  the  chief  zest  of  our  enjoy- 
ment. Then,  and  not  till  then,  shall  we  be 
able  to  put  a  just  value  upon  grapes  as  a  nour- 
ishing food,  and  wine  as  a  refreshing  drink. 


CHAPTEK   XIV. 

WHEN    GRAPES    ARE    RIPE. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  an  ele- 
mentary work  on  tlie  grape  is  that  which  relates 
to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  more  especially 
when  that  work  regards  the  subject  from  the 
stand-point  of  food.  The  novice  should  be 
furnished  with  so  much  knowledge  as  will 
enable  him  to  kngw  when  his  grapes  are  ripe, 
and  in  what  ripeness  consists ;  indeed,  it  is 
equally  important  to  the  grape  grower  and  the 
grape  consumer.  Such  knowledge  is  important 
to  the  grape  grower,  whether  he  purposes  using 
the  fruit  for  his  own  table,  sending  it  to  mar- 
ket, or  making  it  into  wine.  For  all  these 
purposes,  it  is  essential  that  the  fruit  should  be 
ripe'^  and  we  hope  that  all  who  read  these 
pages  will  be  too  conscientious  to  use  grapes 
for  food  until  they  have  at  least  acquired  a 
tolerably  good  degree  of  ripeness,  and  in  time 


"When  Grapes  aee  Eipe.  237 

we  liope  we  may  add,  full  maturity.  Those 
who  are  careful  to  send  to  market  ouly  ripe 
fruit,  nicely  put  up,  always  obtain  good  prices, 
and  find  fruit  growing  profitable :  graj^es 
ought  not  much  longer  to  form  an  excej)tion 
to  the  rule  of  ripe  fruit. 

In  every  city  that  has  a  market,  there  ought 
to  be  a  Board  of  Health,  composed  of  con- 
scientious and  honest  men,  like  that  instituted 
in  New- York  last  summer;  and  it  should  be 
their  duty  to  see  that  no  unripe  fruit  is  offered 
for  sale ;  for  of  all  complaints  that  affect  the 
pul:>lic  health,  there  are  none  that  run  their 
course  more  rapidl}',  or  prove  more  fatal,  than 
those  that  have  their  orio-in  in  the  use  of 
unripe  fruit.  Grapes  are  no  exception :  emi- 
nently healthy  w^hen  rij)e,  they  are  just  the 
reverse  when  unripe.  Each  one,  therefore, 
should  gravely  ask  himself,  how  far  he  can 
conscientiously  become  particeps  criminis  in 
destroying  j)ublic  health  and  life. 

It  becomes  important,  then,  that  those  who 
plant  vineyards  should  have  some  means  of 
judging  when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  In  the  apple, 
pear,  etc.,  mellowness  is  a  good  external  indi- 
cation of  maturity ;  but  we  have  no  such  guide 
in  grapes,  for  mere  appearance  and  touch  are 


23S  American  Grape  Culture. 

no  criteria.     In  our  ordinary  native  kinds  we 
must  accept  an  approximation  to  ripeness,  and 
not  look  for  full  maturity.     If  we  judge  by 
what  we   see  in  market,  tlief  conclusion  is  in- 
evitable, that  there  are  a  great  many  vineyard- 
ists  who  do  not  know  when   graj)es  have  at- 
tained even  this  degree  of  ripeness.     This  is  the 
most  charitable  construction  we  can  put  upon 
the  fact  that  meets  us  every  where.     Some  lots 
are   so  positively  bad   that  the  best  arts  and 
finesse  of  the  agents  can  not  "  work  "  them  off 
upon  the  public,  and  they  are  sold  at  a  low 
figure  to   the  "  doctors "  for  making   so-called 
wine !    and  not  only  so,  but  these  "  wine  doc- 
tors" go  about  among  the  vineyards,  and  buy 
up  the  worthless  refuse  for  the  same  j)urpose. 
We  hoj)e  that  a  practice  so  utterly  disgraceful 
is  not  known  out  of  New- York.     Grapes  that 
are  not  fit  to  eat  are  good  enough  to  make  wine 
of,  forsooth !      Let  those  who  buy  wine  bear 
this  fact  in  mind. 

We  have  found  two  opinions  quite  prevalent 
in  regard  to  the  ripeness  of  grapes:  one,  that 
they  are  ripe  when  they  are  colored ;  the  other,  - 
that  they  are  ripe  when  they  are  sweet.  But 
being  simply  colored  or  sweet  is  not  of  itself  a 
safe  guide.    For  example,  the  Isabella  and  Con- 


When  Grapes  are  Ripe.  239 

cord  are  colored  two  weeks  or  more  before  they 
are  ripe,  while  the  Diana  and  lona  are  sweety 
but  only  a  little  colored,  a  couple  of  weeks 
before  they  are  ripe.  Color  and  sweetness  are 
both  important  elements  of  ripeness ;  but 
there  are  degrees  of  sweetness  and  color,  and 
these  must  attain  their  full  degree  of  force  and 
depth  before  they  can  be  regarded  as  indicat- 
ing ripeness. 

It  will  assist  us  much  in  understanding  what 
ripeness  is  if  we  first  have  some  knowledge  of 
what  the  flesh  of  the  grape  is  composed,  and 
what  changes  take  place  in  it.  The  flesli  is 
composed  chiefly  of  grape  sugar,  tartaric,  tan- 
nic, carbonic,  and  other  acids,  potash,  etc. 
These  elements  are  contained  in  the  juice ;  the 
juice  is  held  in  little  sacs  or  cells  composed  of 
cellular  tissue,  and  the  mass  of  cells  are  in- 
closed in  the  skin,  and  we  thus  have  the  berry. 
The  berry  is  increased  in  size  by  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  cells.  The  changes  that  take 
place  as  the  berry  proceeds  to  maturity  are 
vito-chemical.  The  fruit  will  be  good  or  bad 
as  these  changes  are  more  or  less  perfect,  and 
it  will  depend  chiefly  for  its  flavor  and  spirit 
upon  the  presence  and  due  commingling  of  the 
sugar  and  acid  of  the  grape.     Some  varieties 


240  American  Grape  Culture. 

of  tlie  grape  are  constitutionally  incapable  of 
carrying  the  ripening  process  to  maturity. 

From  what  has  been  said  we  may  derive 
the  following  brief  rule  for  ripeness  in  the 
grape  :  The  berry  is  ripe  when  it  is  tender 
and  melting  in  all  its  parts,  without  loss  of 
its  characteristic  spirit  and  flavor.  If  the  spirit 
and  flavor  are  gone,  we  may  conclude  that 
the  tenderness  proceeds  from  incipient  decay, 
and  not  from  natural  maturity.  The  berry  is 
then  in  the  condition  of  an  overripe  apple  or 
pear.  Ripening  does  not  destroy  the  goodness 
of  the  fruit ;  it  only  carries  it  forward  to  a  per- 
fect condition.  And  just  here  is  presented  the 
line  of  demarkation  between  a  good  and  a  bad 
grape.  In  the  latter,  the  ripening  process, 
owing  chiefly  to  constitutional  causes,  never 
performs  its  office  fully,  and  the  berry  fails  to 
mature ;  a  portion  of  the  flesh  remains  tough, 
and  the  acids  unchanged;  the  sugar  in  the 
juice  is  imperfectly  elaborated,  and  there  is  a 
marked  deficiency  of  spirit  and  flavor,  or  they 
are  so  poorly  developed  as  to  be  scarcely  ap- 
preciable. In  the  good  grape,  on  the  contrary, 
ripening  proceeds  uninterruptedly  to  full  ma- 
turity, and  reaches  all  parts  of  the  berry  in 
consequence  of  the  more   delicate   texture  of 


When  Grapes  are  Ripe.  241 

tlie  cellular  tissue;  tlie  flesh  becomes  tender, 
melting,  or  juicy,  and  tliorouglily  digestible. 
The  flavor  will  be  more  or  less  vinous  and 
epirited,  according  as  the  sugar  and  acids  may 
be  more  or  less  perfectly  elaborated,  and  as 
the  aromatic  principle  may  be  present  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree. 

But  the  reader  may  ask  if  there  are  no  out- 
ward signs  by  which  the  ripeness  of  the  grape 
may  be  determined.  There  certainly  are  such 
signs,  and  they  have  some  value.  The  color  of 
the  skin  constitutes  one  of  these  signs;  but 
there  are  others  which  can  be  recognized  by 
the  practiced  eye  alone.  In  purple  grapes,  like 
Isabella,  the  color  should  be  uniformly  deep. 
If,  on  holding  the  bunch  up  to  the  light,  the 
skin  shows  a  tinge  of  red,  the  berries  are  not 
ripe ;  but  if  the  color  be  uniformly  deep  and 
dark,  with  a  thick  bloom,  it  is  a  pretty  sure 
sign  of  ripeness.  In  dark  claret-colored  grapes, 
like  Catawba,  the  color  should  be  pure  and 
deep,  and  covered  with  a  thick  bloom.  In 
light  clarets,  like  lona,  the  color  should  be 
bright  and  pure,  and  well  covered  Avith  bloom. 
Claret-colored  grapes  are  sometimes  described 
as  amber  colored,  but  there  is  not  a  particle 
of  amber  about  them.    In  light  or  green-colored 

16 


242  American  Grape  Culture. 

grapes,  like  Allen's  Hybrid,  the  green  sliould 
have  a  tinge  of  amber,  which  should  be  quite 
deep  on  the  sunny  side,  and  the  berry  covered 
with  a  l3right,  pearly  bloom.  In  unfavorable 
seasons  and  conditions  the  color  vrill  be  im- 
perfect in  all  these  cases,  and  so  will  the  ripen- 
ing. 

Though  the  condition  of  color  above  de- 
scribed indicates  ripeness,  the  grapes  should 
not  be  cut  for  a  week  at  least  after  this  deep 
color  is  established,  if  they  are  wanted  fully 
ripe.  In  purple  grapes  the  color  is  deceptive  ; 
it  will  seem  to  be  dark  and  ^^ure  to  ordinary 
observation,  but  on  holding  the  launch  up  to 
the  lifdit  a  reddish  tino-e  will  l)e  seen,  which 
shows  that  the  berry  is  not  ripe.  The  longer 
some  kinds  of  purple  grapes  are  left  on,  the 
better,  for  they  never  get  fully  ripe.  In  some 
of  the  light  claret  and  green-colored  grapes, 
ripeness  is  also  accompanied  with  a  certain 
degree  of  transparency ;  the  lona  ,  however,  be- 
gins to  be  transparent  just  after  stoning. 

But  tastins:  is  the  surest  and  safest  of  all 
means  for  determining  ripeness  in  the  grape. 
The  touch  is  of  no  use  to  us  here.  We  can 
not  feel  the  ripeness  of  the  grape  as  we  can 
that  of  the  aj)ple,  the  pear,  or  the  peach,  and 


When  Grapes  are  Eipe.  243 

we  must  tlierefore  have  recourse  to  taste.  If, 
on  tasting  a  grape,  we  find  the  flesh  tender  or 
melting  throughout,  with  a  sweet  and  sprightly 
juice,  accompanied  with  t]ie  characteristic 
flavor  of  the  kind,  it  is  ripe,  and  we  may 
place  it  on  the  table,  send  it  to  market,  or 
make  it  into  wine,  if  it  is  a  wine  grape.  If  it 
is  not  in  this  condition,  it  should  remain  on 
the  vine  till  it  is,  or  be  given  to  the  pigs,  (if 
they  will  eat  it,)  or  made  into  vinegar,  but  it 
should  not  be  eaten  or  made  into  wine. 

There  are  only  a  few  of  our  native  grapes  that 
ripen  theii*  skins,  so  that  they  may  be  eaten. 
They  are  not  only  generally  sour,  but  often 
acrid  and  pungent  to  a  degree  that  can  not  be 
tolerated  by  tender  mouths.  A  few  only  of  our 
best  grapes  are  free  from  this  fault.  It  is  only 
when  the  skin  ripens  in  common  with  the  rest 
of  the  berry,  that  it  may  be  eaten,  like  t]ie 
skin  of  the  foreign  grape.  In  certain  condi- 
tions of  the  body,  the  astringent  principle 
that  resides  in  the  skin  of  the  grape  is  a  valu- 
able medicine,  and  the  edible  condition  of  the 
skin  therefore  adds  to  the  value  of  the  grape. 

We  shall  get  a  better  idea  of  ripeness  if  we 
take  the  foreign  grape  as  an  illustration.  Tliis, 
as  a  class,  ripens  uniformly,  and  hence  its  great 


244  American  Grape  Cdlture. 

excellence.  Its  chief  characteristic,  that  which 
gives  it  its  greatest  value,  is  the  perfection  of 
the  ripening  process,  which  reaches  every  part 
of  the  berry.  This  is  fully  recognized,  and 
every  advantage  taken  of  it  by  the  skillful 
gardener.  He  not  only  places  the  vine  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  for  growth,  and 
carefully  removes  every  cause  which  may  inter- 
fere with  the  full  development  of  the  fruit, 
but  he  applies  his  art  in  such  a  way  as  to  facili- 
tate the  development  of  the  highest  condition 
of  excellence  that  the  vine  is  capable  of  attain- 
ing to.  In  a  true  sense,  he  becomes  a  co-worker 
with  nature. 

Let  us  take  an  example,  say  the  Chasselas 
Musque  or  the  Grizzly  Frontignan,  and  see 
how  the  fruit  is  developed  into  this  excellent 
condition.  The  vine,  when  started,  is  bent 
down,  to  equalize  the  action  of  the  plant,  and 
secure  a  good  "  set "  of  fruit  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  stock  or  cane ;  for  the  gardener 
dislikes  to  see  the  bottom  of  his  vine  naked 
of  fruit.  When  the  fruit  sets,  he  finds  he  has 
too  many  bunches,  and  the  bunches  are  too 
compactly  set.  His  object  is  handsome,  well- 
colored,  and  high-flavored  fruit;  quality,  not 
quantity ;   but  still,  all  the  fruit  his  vine  will 


When  Grapes  are  Kipe.  245 

carry  from  year  to  year  without  injury.  He 
judges  how  much  the  vine  will  mature 
tliorouglily ^  and  removes  the  rest  at  once.  But 
the  bunches  left  are  too  compact  to  have 
the  berries  all  ripen  at  the  same  time,  or  to 
admit  of  their  being  eaten  conveniently ;  he 
therefore  removes  a  half  or  more  of  the  berries 
while  they  are  very  small,  and  as  the  result  he 
has  a  bunch  quite  as  heavy  as  it  would  have 
been  without  the  thinning;  but  the  thinning 
has  admitted  light  and  air  to  all  parts  of  the 
bunch,  and  the  vital  force  having  a  fewer  num- 
ber of  berries  to  act  upon,  they  are  made 
much  larger,  and  the  ripening  process  is  more 
thoroughly  performed. 

He  wants  the  vine  now  to  work  principally 
upon  the  fruit,  and  he  therefore  pinches  out 
the  end  of  the  cane  a  few  leaves  above  the  last 
bunch,  athallizes  promptly,  and  thus  concen- 
trates the  action  of  the  vine  on  the  fruit  and 
the  development  of  the  buds  for  next  year's 
canes.  The  fruit  swells  rapidly,  and  recourse 
is  had  to  various  means  for  securing  handsome 
bunches  of  fully-ripened  and  high-flavored 
grapes ;  and  to  this  end,  among  others  things, 
water  is  applied  in  due  quantity  and  at  proper 
intervals,  and  ventilation  so  regulated  as  to  fur- 


246  American  Grape  Culture. 

nisli  fresli  air  witliout  having  a  current  blowing 
directly  on  the  vines,  or  causing  a  sudden  change 
of  temperature.  When  "  stoning  "  takes  place, 
it  is  accompanied  by  a  beautiful  translucency ; 
the  berries  "clear,"  and  'the  ripening  process 
has  fairly  begun.  It  is  not  confined  to  any 
particular  part  of  the  berry,  but  involves  the 
whole  mass  at  one  and  the  same  time,  like  fer- 
ment in  a  lump  of  dough.  Air  and  water  now 
more  than  ever  influence  the  goodness  and 
flavor  of  the  fruit :  the  first  is  carefully  regula- 
ted, and  the  last  gradually  withheld.  Not  a 
bunch  is  disturbed  till  the  ripening  is  com- 
plete, and  then  he  has  grapes  of  such  excel- 
lence as  to  reward  him  for  all  his  labor,  beauti- 
ful to  look  uj)on,  and  exceedingly  good  to  eat : 
the  flesh  is  tender  and  melting,  the  juice  pure, 
sweet,  and  vinous,  with  a  delightful  muscat 
aroma,  the  skin  quite  edible,  and  there  is  no 
waste  except  the  small  seeds.  He  eats  his 
grapes  with  great  enjoyment,  and  both  body 
and  mind  are  refreshed.  Here  skill,  working 
on  proper  subjects,  produces  its  legitimate 
results  in  a  high  degree  of  excellence. 

Thus  we  see,  in  the  best  foreign  varieties, 
that  all  the  elements  of  a  good  grape  have  been 
brought  together,  as  it  were,  in  equilibrio^  and 


"When  Grapes  are  Kipe.  247 

so  nicely  adjusted  under  tlie  most  favorable 
conditions,  tliat  wlien  motion  begins  in  one,  it 
is  immediately  communicated  to  all  the  rest : 
all  move,  and  each  performs  its  allotted  task 
in  producing  a  perfect  fruit.  There  are  no 
woody,  fibrous  barriers  to  impede  or  shut  off 
access  to  the  interior,  and  which  the  ripening 
process  can  not  overcome,  but  it  finds,  as  it 
were,  open  doors  and  ready  passages  to  lead  it 
to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  berry,  and  it  thus 
takes  possession  of  the  whole,  converting  it 
into  a  uniform  mass  of  goodness. 

It  is  these  elements,  under  precisely  the  same 
conditions  and  operating  in  the  same  manner, 
that  have  heretofore  been  wanting  in  the 
native  grape;  and  they  had  been  so  long  and 
so  earnestly  hoped  for,  that  most  23eople  had 
begun  to  think  it  impossible  that  they  ever 
would  be  found  there;  but  the  supposed  im- 
possibility having  been  proved  possible,  we 
may  confidently  look  forward  to  the  time  when 
truly  good  grapes  will  be  as  common  in  our 
markets  as  poor  ones  now  are.  The  structure 
of  our  native  grape  is  radically  faulty :  woody, 
fibrous  walls  meet  the  ripening  process  at 
every  step ;  it  finds  no  open  doors  or  ready 
passages,   but    must    perforce    knock    a   hole 


248  American  Grape  Culture. 

througli  tlie  inosculated  cells,  tlie  obstnictions 
becomino;  more  formidable  as  the  interior  is 
approached,  till  at  last  it  is  faiiiy  turned  back 
by  the  impenetrable  center,  so  weakened  by  its 
fruitless  efforts  to  overcome  the  obstacles  oj)- 
posed  to  it,  that  it  is  incapable  of  completing 
its  allotted  office.  This  is  the  general  fault  of 
the  native,  and  a  complete  remedy  can  only  be 
found  in  a  new  structure  of  the  flesh,  such  as 
we  find  begun  in  the  Diana,  greatly  improved 
in  the  Delaware  and  Allen,  and  completed  in 
the  lona. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

PEOPAGATION. 

We  propose  here  to  give  a  description  of  tlie 
several  modes  in  wliich  the  vine  is  propagated. 
There  are  perhaps  few  of  our  readei's  who  will 
propagate  their  o^vn  vines;  still,  it  is  just  as 
well  that  they  should  know  how  it  is  done ;  if 
for  no  other  reason,  because  it  is  an  important 
link  in  the  circle  of  knowledge  pertaining  to 
the  vine.  Nurserymen,  who  make  propaga- 
tion a  specialty,  surround  themselves  with  the 
necessary  appliances  in  their  most  approved 
forms,  and  can  therefore  not  only  make  better 
plants,  but  make  them  at  a  much  less  cost, 
than  those  who  have  nothing  of  the  kind. 

The  grape  vine  is  propagated  from  singh 
eyes  or  buds,  cuttings,  and  layers,  and  also  by 
grafting.  New  varieties  are  raised  from  seed. 
We  shall  take  them  up  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  named. 


250  American  Grape  Culture. 

Single  Eyes. — The  most  perfect  mode  of  prop- 
agating any  plant  is  that  furnished  by  nature, 
which  is  the  seed.  The  seed  contains  the  per- 
fect plant  in  embryo  or  miniature.  The  near. 
est  approach  to  seed  is  the  bud,  which  may 
also  be  said  to  contain  the  plant  in  embryo, 
with  perhaps  the  single  exception  of  the  radi. 
cle ;  the  g6rm  of  which,  how^ever,  may  be  said 
to  exist,  at  least  in  some  buds ;  for  if  the  bud 
of  a  grape  vine,  and  the  buds  of  some  other 
kinds  of  plants,  be  carefully  dissected  or  de- 
tached from  the  parent  j^lant,  and  placed  under 
favorable  conditions,  they  will  develop  into 
perfect  plants  of  their  kind.  We  have  conduct- 
ed a  series  of  experiments  with  a  view  of 
establishing  a  general  rule  for  all  buds,  but  we 
are  not  prepared  quite  yet  to  state  it.  The 
analogy,  however,  between  a  seed  and  a  bud, 
is  a  recognized  fact.  In  the  seed,  the  cotyle- 
dons su2323ort  the  plant  while  the  mouths  or 
rootlets  are  beiuo;  formed  on  the  radicle.  Now 
if,  in  the  grape  vine,  for  example,  we  take 
a  small  portion  of  the  cane  (or  mother  jilant) 
on  each  side  of  the  bud,  to  support  the  infant 
plant  while  it  is  forming  mouths  of  its  own, 
we  have  something  that  answers  to  the  cotyle- 
dons in  the  seed,  and  the  analogy  between  the 


Propagation.  251 

two  becomes  almost  perfect.  If  the  beginner 
will  bear  these  things  iu  mind,  he  will  the 
better  understand  the  process  of  propagation, 
and  it  will  become  invested  with  a  new  inter- 
est. The  reader  will  infer,  correctly,  that  we 
esteem  a  grape  vine  made  from  a  single  eye  or 
bud  the  best  that  can  be  produced  by  any  arti- 
ficial means. 

Vines  from  eyes  are  propagated  under  glass. 
In  order  that  the  reader's  mind  may  not  be 
diverted  from  the  main  subject  as  we  go  along, 
we  will  here  notice  an  o'l^jectiou  made  to  this 
mode  of  propagation,  and  which,  to  many, 
seems  to  have  considerable  force.  It  is  object- 
ed that  propagating  plants  under  glass  is  an  arti- 
ficial process,  and  makes  plants  weak  and  tender. 
The  sufficient  answer  to  this  is,  that  all  modes 
of  propagating  plants  from  cuttings  are  strictly 
artificial,  and  that  is  clearly  the  best  which 
places  the  cutting  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions for  its  full  development  into  a  perfect 
plant.  This  is  so  self-evident  that  it  should  need 
no  argmnent.  Now,  it  is  found,  as  the  residt  of 
repeated  and  careful  experiment,  that  shelter, 
shade,  moisture,  etc.,  are  indispensable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  best  plants  from  eyes  or  cuttings ; 
and  it  is  farther  found  that  these,  and  all  other 


252  American  Grape  Culture. 

requisites  needed,  are  best  furnished  by  glass 
houses  constructed  for  the  purpose.  In  short, 
better  vines  can  be  grown  under  glass  in  one  year 
than  can  be  grown  in  the  open  air  in  the  old  way 
in  three  years.  Poor  vines  in  abundance,  how- 
ever, are  grown  in  both  ways.  We  want  chiefly 
a  porous,  moist,  warm  soil,  and*  a  moderately  cool 
but  uniform  and  moist  atmosphere.  These  con- 
ditions are  needed  with  almost  unvarying  con- 
stancy, and  are  admirably  supplied  by  a  glass 
house ;  but  in  the  open  air  we  have  them  only 
"  by  fits  and  turns."  The  infant  plant  must  be 
nursed  into  a  vigorous  childhood  before  it  is 
exposed  to  the  rigors  of  a  changing  climate,  and 
not  stunted  and  dwarfed  by  exposure  before  it 
is  scarcely  born.  In  breeding,  this  principle  is 
now  fully  recognized.  Exposure  and  hardiness 
were  so  intimately  associated  at  one  time,  that 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  rear  young  animals 
exposed  to  all  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather, 
no  shelter  being  afforded  against  even  the  rigors 
of  winter ;  but  it  is  now  found  that  the  shelter  of 
a  good  barn  gives  a  degree  of  vigor,  health,  and 
general  development,  and  consequent  hardiness, 
never  attained  in  the  old  way.  We  must  make 
an  animal  healthy  to  make  him  hardy. 

Single  eyes  are  prepared  in  several  ways,  but 


Propagation 


253 


they  are  substantially  alike.     Some  are  cut  with 
an  inch  or  so  of  wood  above  the  bud ;  some 


with   the  wood  below  the   bud ;  and   others, 


254  AiiERicAN  Grape  Culture. 

again,  witli  the  wood  equally  divided  ou  each 
side  of  the  bud.  Some  j)lace  them  in  the  soil 
upright ;  some  at  an  angle  ;  and  othei's  horizon- 
tally. Various  forms  and  modes  are  shown  in 
Fig.  105.  When  the  cane  on  which  the  bud  is 
growing  is  large,  it  is  usual  to  split  it  lengthwise 
through  the  middle.  It  is  well  to  prepare  the 
buds  a  week  or  two  before  they  are  used,  and 
pack  them  in  moist  sand  or  moss.  The  cut  will 
then  have  become  dry,  and  be  ready  to  "  cal- 
lus ;"  the  eyes,  indeed,  by  cutting  early,  may  be 
callused  before  they  are  placed  in  the  jDropaga- 
ting  bed,  and  a  little  time  thus  gained.  The 
eyes  will  root  a  little  more  readily  if  the  bark  is 
removed ;  but  this  is  so  troublesome,  and  the 
gain  so  small,  that  it  can  not  be  thought  of  on 
a  large  scale. 

•  At  the  proper  time,  say  from  the  middle  of 
February  to  the  middle  of  March,  the  eyes  are 
to  be  placed  in  the  propagating  bed.  Two  or 
three  modes  obtain  here:  some  j)lace  a  single 
eye  in  a  very  small  pot,  and  plunge  the  pots  in 
the  beds ;  others  place  the  eyes  about  an  inch 
apart  in  large  pots ;  and  still  others  j^lace  the 
eyes  from  one  to  two  inches  apart  in  the  propa- 
gating beds.  The  eyes  ^vill  root  most  readily 
in  pots. 


Propagation.  255 

Just  here  we  must  stop  a  moment,  and  ascer- 
tain what  ai-e  the  conditions  needed  to  convert 
these  eyes  into  strong  and  healthy  vines.     We 
want  a  clean,  sharp  sand  for  the  sake  of  its  por- 
ousness ;  one  of  the  largest  and  most  successful 
propagators  that  we  know  is  so  particular  as  to 
wash  his  sand  thoroughly  clean.     We  want  a 
suitable  bed  in  which  to  place  this  sand.     This 
may  be   made  of  planed  or  rough  boards,  so 
put    together   as   to   form   an  open  box   from 
three   to   five   feet  wide,  and    about  one  foot 
deep,  the  joints  in  the  bottom  being   covered 
with  thin  slips  or  laths  to  prevent  the  sand  from 
running  through.     This  bed  should  run  along 
the  sides  of  the  house,  and  also   through  the 
middle,  when  the  house  is  wide  enough.     The 
top  of  the  bed  should  come  nearly  up  to  the 
sill  of  the  house,  and  be  supported   by  posts 
and  cross  ties.     The  height  of  the  bed,  however, 
in  reference  to  the  sill,  must  be  regulated  by  the 
form  of  the  house.     The  pipes  or  tanks  for  sup- 
plying heat  must  run  under  the  bed.     If  pipes 
are  used,  then  all  the  space  under  the  beds  must 
be  boarded  in  for  a  hot-air  chamber,  with  doors 
at  short  intervals  for  regulating  the  heat.     If  a 
hot  water  tank  is  used,  no  Iwarding  in  will  be 
needed,  for  the  beds  will   rest  immediately  on 


256  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  tank.  Next,  saslies  must  be  provided  for 
covering  tlie  beds.  With  a  proper  glass  struc- 
ture covering  these  appurtenances,  we  have  all 
that  is  needed  for  propagating  the  best  class  of 
vines,  except  the  knowledge,  skill,  and  care  of 
the  propagator,  which  are  brought  into  almost 
unceasing  requisition. 

All  things  being  ready,  the  sand  is  put  in  the 
bed  from  three  to  six  inches  deep,  and  in  this  the 
eyes  are  put  from  one  to  two  inches  apart,  the 
sand  pressed  firmly  about  them,  and  gently  wa- 
tered. If  the  eyes  are  put  in  pots,  the  pots 
must  be  plunged  in  the  sand.  The  sashes  are 
then  placed  over  the  beds,  and  the  boiler  fired 
up.  The  sashes  should  be  used  chiefly  for 
shade,  and  should  therefore,  during  most  of  the 
time,  be  kept  partly  raised.  On  clear  days  the 
sashes  should  be  shaded  during  the  middle  part 
of  the  day,  by  laying  paper  on  them,  which 
should  be  removed  as  the  sun  declines,  and  kept 
off  entirely  during  cloudy  weather,  the  object 
being  to  admit  as  much  light  as  possible  to  the 
infant  plants,  but  not  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
till  they  have  become  able  to  bear  them.  If  the 
sashes  are  kept  shut  down,  the  plants  are  aj^t  to 
(3  amp  off.  This  matter  will  need  constant  atten- 
tion. 


Propagation.  257 

The  next  condition  to  be  provided  is  a  warm 
bed  for  tlie  eyes  to  root  in,  and  a  cooler,  but 
moist  and  uniform  atmosphere  for  the  tops  to 
grow  in.  The  heat  for  the  bottom  is  obtained 
by  closing  all  the  doors  of  the  hot-air  chamber, 
which  prevents  the  heat  from  the  pipes  from 
escaping  into  the  house.  A  good  thermometer 
must  be  used  here,  and  strict  attention  paid  to 
the  fires,  so  that  the  heat  may  not  at  any  time 
become  too  great.  The  bottom  heat  may  go  as 
high  as  70°  or  80°  with  safety,  but  from  60°  to 
70°  should  be  observed  as  nearly  as  may  be. 
The  temperature  of  the  house  should  be  kept 
about  ten  degrees  below  the  bottom  heat. 
This  is  done  by  regulating  the  heat  from  the 
pipes,  and  opening  the  ventilators  of  the  house. 
As  the  season  advances,  this  matter  will  need  a 
good  deal  of  attention.  Changes  in  the  weather 
must  be  watched  for  and  provided  against,  and 
every  precaution  taken  to  secure  and  maintain 
great  uniformity  in  all  the  conditions  named  as 
necessary  to  success. 

Now,  let  us  see  what  takes  place  in  the  l^ed. 

In  a  few  days  the  buds  will  begin  to  swell,  and 

then  growth  will  begin ;  but  no  roots  have  yet 

been  formed.     After  the  first  start,  the  motion 

for  a  while  is  scarcely  apparent :  the  cuts  are 

17 


258  American  Grape  Culture. 

"  callusing,"  and  the  infant  plant  is  being  nour- 
ished by  the  small  amount  of  matter  previously 
laid  up.  In  from  eight  to  twelve  days  the  pro- 
cess of  "  callusing "  will  be  pretty  well  com- 
pleted, and  soon  thereafter  the  roots  wall  begin 
to  appear.  When  these  are  about  an  inch  long, 
the  eyes  are  taken  from  the  propagating  bed, 
and  put  in  small  pots  in  a  good  fine  soil,  pre- 
pared for  the  purjDose.  They  have  heretofore  been 
shaded,  and  for  a  little  while  the  shading  must 
be  continued,  when  the  plants  should  be  exposed 
to  the  light  just  as  fast  as  they  are  able  to  bear 
and  profit  by  it,  and  no  more.  They  must  now 
for  a  while  be  watched  constantly,  and  not  al- 
lowed to  want  for  any  thing.  Water  must  be 
given  just  at  the  moment  it  is  wanted,  and  then 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  go  through  the  pot. 
Special  care  must  be  taken  not  to  check  root 
action.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  small  pots 
will  be  well  filled  with  roots,  and  the  plants 
must  be  put  in  larger  pots,  and  staked.  When 
these  pots  get  filled  with  roots,  the  plants  must 
be  changed  to  others  still  larger,  and  so  re-potted 
from  time  to  time  as  they  need  it,  until  at  last 
they  occupy  pots  holding  gallons.  The  pots 
must  at  no  time  be  allowed  to  get  so  full  of  roots 
as  to  check  the  growth   of  the  plants :  there 


Propagation.    .  259 

must  be  an  uninterrupted  growth  of  top  and 
bottom.  In  tlie  mean  time,  tlie  plants  must  be 
carefully  watered,  tied  up,  atliallized,  and  grad- 
ually hardened  by  exposure  and  the  admission 
of  more  air  daily. 

In  the  best  arranged  places  the  plants,  when 
sufficiently  advanced,  are  moved  to  unheated 
houses,  with  movable  top  sashes,  which  are  more 
or  less  opened  or  entirely  removed,  as  may  best 
secui'e  the  health  and  ripening  of  the  cane  and 
roots.     Sometimes  the  plants  are  turned  out  of 
the  pots  and  planted  in  the  borders  of  thi's 
house.     At  other  times  they  are  planted  in  the 
open  air.     There  are  a  great  many  advantages 
gained  by  the  use  of  the  "  hardening  off  "  house, 
as  it  may  be  called,  chief  among  which  are  these : 
the  plants  can  at  any  moment  be  secured  against 
sudden  and  unfavorable  changes  of  weather,  and 
the  ill  consequences  that   always   follow  such 
changes ;  and  if  the  season  proves  short,  with 
early  frosts,  the  sashes  can  be  put  on,  and  two 
or  three  weeks  gained  in  this  way  for  the  perfect 
ripening  of  the  plant.     These  advantages  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated   by  those  who   buy 
plants.     It  is  very  seldom  that  they  are  secured 
by  open   air  propagation   of  any  kind.     Firj. 


260  American"  Grape  Culture. 

106  is  a  good  example  of  plants  made  from  sin- 
gle eyes. 


Fig.  106. 


Single  Eyes  in  Hot  Beds. — Very  good  plants 
may  be  made  by  placing  single  eyes  and  two- 
eyed  cuttings  in  a  common  liot  bed  frame. 

The  frame  of  the  bed  must  be  made  to  ac- 
commodate the  size  of  the  sash,  which  maybe  of 
any  convenient  size.  A  sash  four  feet  wide  and 
four  and  a  half  long  we  have  found  to  be  the 
most  convenient  of  all  that  we  have  used.  It 
is  usual  to  make  them  long  and   narrow,  and 


Propagation. 


261 


such  can  generally  be  bought  ready  made.  The 
front  of  the  frame  sliould  be  about  a  foot  high, 
and  the  back  from  four  to  six  inches  higher 
than  the  front,  according  to  the  width  of  the 
frame ;  in  other  words,  there  should  be  just 
slope  enough  to  shed  water.  It  is  a  very  com- 
mon mistake  to  make  the  slope  quite  steep. 
The  frame  may  be  made  of  common  rough 
boards,  or  it  may  be  made  of  worked  boards, 
and  painted,  and  put  together  with  screws  and 
hooks,  so  as  to  be  taken  apart :  there  are  vari- 


Fig.  107. 


ous  ways  of  making  them.  A  good  idea  of  the 
frame  and  sash,  mth  its  fastenings,  etc.,  may  be 
got  from  Fig.  107. 

A  covering  of  some  kind  must  now  be  pro- 
vided to  protect  the  plants  at  night,  and  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  heat.  For  this  purpose,  straw 
mats  are  commonly  used,  as  they  are  conven- 


262  American  Grape  Culture. 

lent  and  easily  made  ;  boards,  blankets,  cai'pets, 
etc.,  are  also  used ;  but  the  best  thing  we  have 
tried  is  a  light  frame  made  of  laths  and  filled 
with  straw,  and  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  bed 
with  a  bolt  hinge,  so  that  it  may  not  only  lie 
flat  on  the  sash,  but  be  moved  to  any  angle. 
When  placed  upright,  it  forms  a  good  protection 
from  northerly  winds.  It  is  in  common  use 
among  the  French,  who  generally  weave  the 
straw  together  in  mats,  which  are  stifiened  by 
wooden  slips  on  the  edges,  and  at  intervals 
througli  the  middle,  if  necessary. 

Hot  beds  are  commonly  made  by  using  long 
and  coarse  manure  for  the  heating  material; 
but  we  must  alter  and  vary  the  material  in  this 
case,  in  order  to  produce  uniform  and  good  re- 
sults. For  our  pm*pose,  dead  leaves  are  the 
best  material.  Manure  alone  makes  too  strong 
a  heat.  Equal  parts  of  leaves  and  horse  manure 
make  a  very  good  and  durable  heating  material ; 
but  leaves  alone  make  the  "  sweetest,"  most 
even,  as  well  as  most  durable  bed,  one  five  feet 
thick  sometimes  retaining  its  heat  for  a  year. 
If  leaves  alone  are  used,  they  should  be  gathered 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  and  placed  loosely 
together,  and  under  cover,  if  convenient;  or 
boards  may  be  laid  over  them  to  keep  off  snow 


Peopagatiox.  263 

and  rain.  It  matters  but  little  what  kind  of 
leaves  are  used ;  they  may  be  gathered  indis- 
criminately in  the  woods. 

About  two  weeks  before  making  the  bed  the 
leaves  should  be  prepared  as  follows :  make  a 
layer  of  leaves  about  two  feet  thick,  of  any  con- 
venient size,  and  just  moisten  them  with  water 
from  a  watering  pot,  if  they  are  dry ;  they  must 
then  be  beaten  down  pretty  firmly,  and  another 
layer  added,  and  treated  in  the  same  way.  The 
layers  are  repeated  till  the  heap  is  finished, 
when  boards  should  be  so  laid  on  the  top  as  to 
shed  rain.  In  from  six  to  ten  days  the  heap 
will  begin  to  warm. 

Having  the  materials  all  ready,  the  bed  should 
be  started  somewhere  from  the  first  to  the  mid- 
dle of  March,  or  even  as  late  as  the  first  of  April. 
Select  a  dry  spot,  where  surface  water  will  flow 
off  readily.  Cart  the  leaves  to  the  spot,  and 
proceed  as  follows:  mark  out  the  size  of  the 
bed,  which  should  run  lengthwise  east  and  west, 
and  be  two  or  three  feet  wider  than  the  frame  : 
then  spread  a  layer  of  leaves  about  a  foot  thick, 
and  beat  them  down  firmly ;  if  they  are  dry, 
moisten  them  with  warm  water  before  beating 
them  down.  Kepeat  layer  after  layer  in  the  same 
way,  beating  each  one  down  firmly,  till  the  bed 


264  American  Grape  Culture. 

is  raised  three  or  four  feet  high.  Unless  the 
mass  of  leaves  are  put  firmly  together,  it  will 
not  only  require  considerable  time  for  them  to 
heat,  but  the  heat  will  be  low  and  not  uniform ; 
and  they  will  not  heat  at  all  unless  they  are 
moist.  These  two  particulars  must  therefore  be 
attended  to  carefully.  If  leaves  and  manure  are 
used  together,  they  must  be  well  mixed.  The 
operation  should  be  performed  quickly,  in  order 
that  the  small  amount  of  heat  already  in  the 
mass  may  not  be  lost. 

Having  laid  up  the  bed  of  leaves,  the  frame 
is  put  on  so  as  to  set  level.  For  raising  vege- 
tables, etc.,  the  frame  is  placed  with  its  front  to 
the  south;  but  for  our  purpose  we  shall  place 
the  front  to  the  north.  Leaves  must  then  be 
packed  around  the  outside  of  the  fi^ame  up  to 
the  top.  Next,  clean  sand  must  be  put  in  to 
the  depth  of  about  six  inches,  leveled  off  neatly, 
and  the  sashes  put  on.  All  these  things  must 
be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  order  that 
there  may  be  no  unnecessary  loss  of  heat. 

The  sashes  must  be  left  on  for  a  few  days  be- 
fore the  eyes  are  put  in,  in  order  that  the  sand 
may  become  uniformly  warmed.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  sashes  facing  the  north,  the  sun 
will  have  comparatively  little  effect  upon  the 


Propagation.  265 

heat  of  tlie  bed;  still  it  will  be  necessary  to 
raise  tbe  sashes  a  little  on  warm  days  when  the 
sun  is  out ;  they  must  not  be  raised  too  high  nor 
kept  up  too  long  just  now.  In  ventilating  a  hot 
bed,  always  raise  the  top  or  side  opposite  the 
point  whence  the  wind  comes.  In  this  way  the 
wind  will  never  blow  directly  into  the  frame. 
As  the  sun  goes  down  the  sashes  must  be  well 
covered,  and  the  covering  removed  when  the  sun 
is  well  up  in  the  morning.  This  is  a  general 
rule  to  be  observed  every  day. 

When  the  sand  becomes  warm,  single  eyes 
or  two-eyed  cuttings  may  be  put  in  precisely  as 
was  directed  for  the  propagating  bed ;  there  is 
much  advantage,  however,  in  hot-beds,  in  put- 
ting the  eyes  in  pots,  and  plunging  the  pots  in 
the  sand.     Cold  water  must  never  be  used. 

The  frame  will  now  need  considerable  care 
and  watching.  The  same  conditions,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  should  obtain  here  as  in  the  propa- 
gating house.  Ventilation  must  be  so  adjusted 
as  to  preserve  a  rather  low,  moist  atmosphere 
above  the  plants,  without  wasting  the  heat  of 
the  bed.  The  sashes  must  therefore  be  raised 
from  a  mere  crack  to  several  inches,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  advanced  con- 
dition of  the  plants;  but  the  sashes  must  be 


266  American  Grape  Culture. 

raised  at  tlie  top,  bottom,  or  either  of  the  sides, 
according  as  it  may  be  opposite  the  point  whence 
the  wind  comes.  Water,  also,  must  be  faith- 
fully applied,  but  only  when  it  is  wanted,  and 
no  more  than  is  wanted.  The  wants  of  the  plants 
in  these  two  particulars  must  be  carefully  and 
constantly  watched  and  ministered  to. 

No  very  precise  rules  can  be  given  for  shading 
and  ventilation.  We  have  several  times  stated 
the  importance  of  having  a  uniform  moist  at- 
mosphere, for  the  young  plants  to  grow  in,  and 
it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  repeat  it  here ;  yet 
it  is  a  point  that  must  be  constantly  borne  in 
mind.  The  importance  of  a  strong  light  with- 
out the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  has  also  been  al- 
luded to :  it  is  the  colorific  and  not  calorific 
rays  that  are  wanted.  Ventilation  and  shading 
must  have  reference  to  these  two  points.  If  the 
sashes  face  the  south,  as  is  almost  universally 
the  case,  the  sun  heats  the  frame  early,  and  by 
mid-day  it  becomes  almost  seething.  The  plants 
would  speedily  die  if  left  to  such  conditions, 
and  it  therefore  becomes  necessary  not  only  to 
ventilate  and  shade  early,  but  to  exercise  the  ut- 
most vigilance  all  through  the  day  to  regulate 
the  ventilation  so  as  not  to  reduce  either  the 
heat  or  the  moisture  below  what  is  necessary 


Propagation.  267 

for  the  wants  of  the  plant.  Each  of  these  must 
he  nicely  adjusted  to  meet  the  changes  that  are 
constantly  occurring.  Painting  with  white  lead, 
sanding,  etc.,  are  usually  resorted  to ;  but  a  bet- 
ter plan  is  given  below. 

By  our  arrangement  of  making  the  sashes  face 
the  north,  the  necessary  conditions  are  obtained 
with  much  less  labor,  and  with  a  much  greater 
degree  of  uniformity ;  and  this  latter  point  is  of 
the  utmost  importance.  Not  having  to  battle 
constantly  with  the  direct  heating  rays  of  the 
sun,  less  ventilation  is  needed,  and  the  proper 
degree  of  heat  and  moisture  is  more  easily  and 
uniformly  maintained.  We  have  found  the  la- 
bor to  be  reduced  fully  one  half,  and  the  success 
increased  much  beyond  that  amount;  besides 
which,  the  plants  are  of  a  better  character. 
A  good  plan  for  shading  is  to  make  a  light 
fi'anie,  of  the  size  of  the  sash,  and  cover  it  with 
thin  brown  muslin.  By  resting  one  end  of  the 
frame  on  the  sash,  it  may  be  adjusted  at  different 
inclinations,  so  as  to  afford  more  or  less  shade  to 
the  plants  without  obstructing  the  light  entirely. 
If  a  frame  of  this  kind  is  not  used,  newspapers 
may  be  spread  on  the  sash  at  the  times  needed, 
and  secured  there  by  laying  strips  of  board  on 
them.     They  should  be  kept  on  no  longer  than 


268  American  Grape  Culture. 

is  necessary.  If  the  reader  bears  in  mind  that  a 
constantly  uniform  moisture  is  necessary  for  the 
young  plants,  lie  will  by  this  time  be  able  to  se- 
cure it  by  a  proper  adjustment  of  shading  and 
ventilation,  being  careful  not  to  carry  the  latter 
too  far. 

The  strong  light  in  which  the  plants  have 
been  gi'owing  will  make  "  hardening  off"  an  easy 
process.  This  should  be  begun  as  soon  as  the 
plants  are  well  rooted,  by  admitting  a  little  more 
air  from  time  to  time,  thus  preparing  them  for 
full  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air.  When  rooted, 
the  plants  should  be  separated  and  put  in  small 
pots,  in  soil  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
pots  placed  in  the  frame.  For  a  few  days  af- 
ter this  they  must  be  shaded  from  the  mid-day 
sun,  and  the  sashes  kept  a  little  closer  shut ;  at 
the  end  of  which  time  the  admission  of  air  must 
be  daily  increased,  and  the  sashes  finally  re- 
moved, as  the  weather,  by  this  time,  will  be  suf- 
ficiently warm  to  continue  the  growth  without 
the  aid  of  a  frame.  The  plants  may  be  shifted 
from  time  to  time  into  larger  pots,  and  thus 
grown  during  the  season ;  but  they  will  become 
stunted  in  pots  unless  protected  in  some  way. 
A  better  plan,  therefore,  is  to  plant  them  in 
nursery  rows,  in  well  prepared  soil,,  or  to  plant 


Propagation.  269 

them  where  tliey  are  to  remain.  These  direc- 
tions, in  connection  with  what  has  heretofore 
been  said,  will  enable  one  to  grow  good  plants 
in  hot-bed  frames,  from  single  eyes  ;  very  much 
better,  indeed,  than  any  that  can  be  grown  in 
the  open  air. 

By  beginning  later  in  the  season,  eyes  may  be 
started  in  a  cold  frame,  which  is  simply  a  frame 
and  sash  without  any  heating  material.  The 
plants,  however,  will  not  be  so  good,  since  they 
Avill  not  make  as  good  roots,  nor  have  as  long  a 
season  to  grow  in.  The  cold  fi-ame  is  made  as 
follows :  a  dry  spot  is  selected  as  before,  and  the 
ground  spaded  up  and  leveled  off.  The  fr^ame 
is  then  set  on  the  ground,  fom-  or  five  inches  of 
sand  put  in,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  plants  is  substantially  the  same  as 
for  a  hot  bed. 

We  have  said'  that  vines  can  be  made  better 
and  cheaper  in  regular  propagating  houses  than 
in  the  ordinary  way  in  the  open  air ;  but  there 
are  certain  adaptations  or  arrangements,  by 
means  of  which  those  who  have  time,  and  delight 
in  such  employment,  (and  there  are  many  such,) 
may  grow  tolerably  good  vines ;  better  than  can 
be  grown  without  their  aid.  A  description  of 
one  such  has  been  furnished  us  by  a  friend,  and 


270  American  Grape  Culture. 

we  give  it  in  his  own  words.  It  afforded  liim 
much  pleasure  in  times  past,  and  we  have  no 
doubt  will  yield  a  similar  jpleasure  to  any  one 
who  may  try  it.     It  is  as  follows : 

'•'-Domestic  Propagation. — Good  vines  may  be 
produced  with  very  little  outlay,  except  that  of 
constancy  of  attention,  by  any  one  who  will  un- 
failingly observe  the  following  very  simj^le  di- 
rections. We  will  suppose  the  ground  already 
well  prepared,  and  so  thoroughly  mixed  together 
as  to  be  strictly  one  homogeneous  mass  suitable 
for  inviting  and  entertaining  the  roots  of  young 
plants.  Have  in  readiness  three  pine  box  boards 
about  one  foot  wide  and  thirteen  feet  long, 
or  of  any  other  convenient  length.  Nail  three 
battens,  about  two  inches  wide  and  eighteen 
inches  long,  across  one  of  them,  placing  one  near 
each  end,  and  the  other  near  the  middle,  leaving 
the  ends  to  project  equally  on  each  side. 

"  Dig  a  little  trench,  three  inches  deep,  with 
neat  perpendicular  sides.  Set  one  of  the  boards 
on  edge  in  the  trench,  at  its  southerly  or  front 
side,  and  drive  three  little  stakes  into  the 
ground  on  the  trench  side  to  keep  it  there. 
Have  the  tops  of  the  stakes  a  little  lower  than 
the  upper  edge  of  the  board,  through  which 
drive  one  nail  into  each  of  the  stakes.     Drive 


Propagation. 


271 


three  stakes  in  a  row  close  to  the  back,  of  the 
trench,  placing  them  like  those  already  driven 
in  front ;  but  these  are  to  be  set  close  against 
the  back,  to  keep  the  rear  board  at  the  surface. 
Set  the  other  board  on  edge,  the  lower  edge  rest- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  nail  as  be- 
fore. Shut  up  the  ends,  and  place  the  board 
with  the  battens  upon  the  top,  and  the  house  is 
made.  Two  pieces  with  notches  taken  out  to 
form  the  slots  for  the  end  battens  should  be 
nailed  upon  the  upper  edge  of  each  of  the  side 
boards.     (See  Fig.  108.) 


Fig.  10& 

"  The  room  inside  is  fourteen  inches  wide,  to 
be  divided  for  three  rows  of  cuttings,  the  first  to 
be  set  two  inches  from  the  front  board,  the  next 
two  inches  from  the  back  of  the  trench,  and  the 
third  in  the  middle.  The  cuttings  may  be  six 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Good  two-eyed  cut- 
ings  of  the  free  rooting  kinds  will  grow  with  a 
great  degree  of  certainty  in  this  simple  arrange- 
ment, and  make  good  plants  for  the  nursery  in 
one  season,  and  very  good  plants  for  the  garden 


272 


American  Grape  Culture. 


or  vineyard  the  next,  under  the  following  man- 
agement: 

"Plant  as  just  directed.  As  early  in  the 
morning  as  the  atmosphere  begins  to  be  warmed, 
take  off  the  cover,  placing  it  bottom  side  up  back 
of  the  'house,'  to  let  the  under  side  dry.  At  about 
eight  o'clock  put  on  the  cover,  to  remain  till 
four  or  five,  if  the  day  should  be  very  hot  and 
dry,  or  windy.  The  state  of  the  weather  must 
also  regulate  the  time  of  taking  it  off  in  the 
morning.  A  little  before  sunset  it  is  to  be  put 
on  for  the  night.  The  cover  should  be  placed  so 
that  the  opening  on  each  side  of  it  will  be 
equal ;  that  is,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  each,  if 
the  board  is  one  foot  wide,  which  is  about  the 


Fig.  109. 


right  proportion.     Notches  in  the  battens  may 
regulate  this  with  certainty. 

"  This  arrangement  may  be  continued  to  any 
length  desired,  or  may  be  multiplied  indefinitely. 
It  may  also  be  made  larger  for  the  production 
of  stronger  plants,  as  re2:)resented  in  the  illus- 


Propagation.  273 

tration.  (See  Fig.  109.)  In  this  the  number 
will  not  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  size, 
but  the  plants  may  be  made  much  better. 
Every  length  of  thirteen  feet  in  the  former  will 
I'eceive  about  seventy -five  cuttings  at  the  dis- 
tances named,  and  about  one  hundred  in  the 
latter.  In  the  last,  good  vines  for  vineyard 
planting  may  be  made  in  one  season.  The  first 
of  April,  in  the  latitude  of  New- York,  is  gener- 
ally about  the  time  for  setting  the  cuttings. 

"The  conditions  of  success  in  management 
are,  ground  always  moist,  and  never  wet ;  water 
not  permitted  to  remain  on  the  leaves  for  want 
of  ventilation,  and  no  exposure  to  strong  drying 
winds,  but  careful  increase  of  light  and  sun  as 
the  plants  are  able  to  bear  it.  The  space  of  an 
inch  and  a  half  at  each  side  of  the  cover  will  af- 
ford sufficient  light  to  maintain  healthiness  of 
the  leaves  during  the  early  stage,  if  the  most 
advantage  that  can  be  had  with  safety  is  taken 
of  the  early  morning  and  evening  sun,  without 
letting  in  enough  sunshine  to  injure.  After  the 
plants  have  become  pretty  well  rooted,  the  cov- 
ers may  be  put  on  with  the  battens  under, 
which  will  nearly  double  the  light.  One  hour 
of  sunshine  that  can  be  borne  without  injury  is 

18 


2*74  American  Grape  Culture. 

worth  several  hours  of  shade  for  giving  increase 
and  strength  to  the  plants. 

"  The  careful  propagator  meets  with  no  acci- 
dents, but  one  act  of  negligence  may  be  fatal  to 
the  season's  hopes.  One  of  the  first  conditions 
to  success  is  good,  well-ripened  wood,  and  that 
from  strong  vines,  \^ell  grown  in  houses,  is  much 
the  best.  One  good  cutting  is  worth  more  than 
several  poor  ones.  It  is  only  very  good  ones 
that  are  fit  to  use  for  this  purpose,  and  these  are 
much  less  abundant  than  those  that  are  toler- 
ably good  or  poor.  .  The  watering  should  be 
done  from  a  watering  pot  with  a  fine  rose; 
large  streams  act  unfavorably  upon  the  soil.  It 
is  most  properly  done  in  the  morning,  in  the 
early  part  of  theseason,  and  in  the  evening, 
after  hot  weather  is  established.  The  quantity 
should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  always  moist 
through  its  whole  depth,  but  it  should  never 
be  applied  when  not  needed.  In  very  diying 
weather,  if  the  plants  begin  to  droop  during  the 
day,  and  water  seems  to  be  called  for,  do  not 
hesitate  to  apply  it  from  fear  of  injury  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sun  shining. 

"  This  arrangement  is  commended  to  all  of 
both  sexes,  who  feel  themselves  willing  to  give 
the  requisite  attention  for  three  or  four  months, 


Pkopagation".  2*75 

and  who  find  enjoyment  in  observing  and  co- 
working  with  nature  in  her  most  interesting 
operations.  Such  will  find  the  interest  and  de- 
light constantly  increasing  with  increase  of 
knowledge  and  experience,  and  those  who  desire 
it  may  reap  a  handsome  pecuniary  reward  for 
their  leisure  hours." 

Single  Eyes  in  the  Open  Air. — It  is  some- 
times asked  whether  the  vine  can  not  be  propa- 
gated from  single  eyes  in  the  open  air ;  and  the 
fact  that  the  French  have  within  a  few  years 
succeeded  in  doing  so,  seems  to  have  given  some 
interest  to  the  question.  About  fifteen  years 
ago  we  tried  the  experiment  in  a  very  thorough 
manner.  A  bed  four  by  ten  was  prepared,  and 
eyes  from  about  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  the 
native  grape  were  put  in,  but  the  result  was  far 
from  satisfactory.  The  experiment  was  repeated 
several  times  more  carefully,  and  recourse  had  to 
watering,  mulching,  partial  shading,  etc,  with 
much  more  gratifying  results.  Some  kinds 
rooted  much  better  than  others.  The  constant 
care  and  labor  necessary  to  success  were  ten-fold 
greater  than  are  demanded  in  growing  eyes  un- 
der glass,  and  the  results  so  greatly  inferior,  that 
we  have  not  repeated  the  experiment  since. 
An   enterprising  nurseryman,  however,  at  our 


276  American  Grape  Culture. 

request,  tried  the  experiment  three  years  after- 
ward, but  his  success  was  far  less  than  our  own. 
It  is  safe  to  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  native 
vine  can  not  be  successfully,  or  at  least  profitably, 
grown  from  eyes  in  the  open  air.  Because  it  has 
been  done  in  France,  it  does  not  follow  that  it 
can  be  done  here.  The  climate  of  the  two 
countries  is  entirely  different. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

PROPAGATION CONTINUED. 

Cuttings. — If  we  succeeded  in  giving  tlie  read- 
er a  clear  idea  of  how  plants  are  made  from  single 
eyes,  he  will  readily  understand  how  they  are 
made  from  cuttings.  These  consist  of  pieces  of 
cane  having  from  two  to  five  eyes  or  buds.  A 
cutting  of  two  eyes  is  seen  at  the  right,  Fig.  105. 
Cuttings  are  prepared  by  making  a  clean  cut 
close  under  the  lowest  bud,  which  is  removed, 
as  is  also  the  one  above  it  when  there  are  three. 
The  cane  is  cut  half  an  inch  above  the  top 
bud,  the  slope  of  the  cut  being  on  the  side  op- 
posite the  bud.  Only  thoroughly  ripe  canes 
should  be  used  for  cuttings,  and  those  of  me- 
dium size  are  best.  Cuttings  of  two  eyes  are 
sometimes  grown  under  glass.  They  are  placed 
in  the  propagating  bed,  with  the  upper  bud  an 
inch  or  so  above  the  surface,  as  shown  on  the 
right  in  Fig.  105.    Their  management  is  then 


278  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  same  as  for  single  eyes.  In  small,  sLort- 
jointed  wood,  tte  bud  should  be  just  above 
the  surface. 

Cuttings,  however,  are  generally  grown  in  the 
open  air,  and  some  kind  of  preparation  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  a  good  degree  of  success.  The 
best  soil  is  one  that  is  light  and  porous,  and  at 
all  times  free  from  standing  water.  If  not  por- 
ous, it  can  be  made  so  by  the  addition  of  sand. 
It  should  be  worked  deep,  to  insure  against  the 
ill  effects  of  drought.  It  can  hardly  be  made  too 
mellow  and  fine.  The  cuttings  having  been 
prepared  as  above,  are  to  be  planted  as  follows : 
stretch  a  line,  and  along  this  line  put  in  the 
cuttings  about  one  foot  apart;  they  are  often 
put  in  much  closer,  but  this  is  close  enough. 
As  they  are  put  in,  the  soil  must  be  pressed 
against  them  firmly.  This  is  particularly  neces- 
sary with  two-eyed  cuttings,  to  prevent  them 
from  being  displaced ;  but,  aside  from  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  insure  ready  rooting.  If  the  soil  is 
not  quite  mellow,  a  dibble  should  be  used  for 
making  the  holes.  The  top  eye  of  the  cutting 
should  be  about  an  inch  above  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  Having  completed  one  row,  stretch 
the  line  two  feet  from  it,  and  plant  another,  and 
so  continue  till  all  are  planted.     These  distances 


Propagation.  2*79 

are  greater  than  are  sometimes  observed,  but 
none  too  great  where  good  plants  and  much  suc- 
cess are  expected.  Indeed,  if  they  are  not  to  be 
transplanted,  they  should  be  three  or  four  feet 
apart.  No  weeds  must  be  allowed  to  grow ; 
the  hoe  should  be  used  before  the  weeds  are 
fairly  out  of  the  seed  leaf. 

The  cuttings  should  be  put  in  as  soon  as  the 
ground  can  be  thoroughly  worked.  When 
warm  weather  fully  sets  in,  but  not  before,  the 
ground  may  be  mulched  with  straw,  having 
first  been  well  weeded.  In  case  of  drought, 
mulching  will  be  found  a  great  benefit.  If  the 
ground  is  not  mulched,  it  should  be  repeatedly 
hoed  to  keep  the  weeds  down,  and  make  it  mel- 
low. With  watchful  care,  you  may  expect  a 
fail*  proportion  of  tolerably  good  plants.  We 
have  seen  acres  of  cuttings  that  did  not 
produce  a  plant  fit  to  sell  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  It  often  becomes  necessary  to  transplant 
them,  and  grow  them  a  second,  and  even  a  third 
year,  to  make  salable  plants  of  them. 

Layers. — Though  this  is  the  easiest  and  most 
certain  method  of  propagating  the .  vine,  it  re- 
quires some  knowledge,  if  not  skill,  to  perform 
it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  really  good 
plants  :    poor   ones   are   very   common.      The 


280  American"  Grape  Culture. 

motlier  plant  requires  some  kind  of  prepara- 
tion, and  should  have  age,  before  being  tasked 
to  produce  plants  in  this  way.  No  vine  should 
be  expected  to  produce  good  fruit  and  layers 
at  the  same  time ;  we  may  go  further,  and  say 
that  no  vine  can  produce  good  fruit  and  layers 
for  any  length  of  time  together.  We  say  this 
for  the  benefit  of  those  who  think  they  can  per- 
sist in  layering  their  vineyards  without  injury 
to  the  fruit  or  the  plant. 

A  layer  consists  of  a  portion  of  cane  laid 
in  the  ground  while  still  attached  to  the  mother 
plant,  where  it  remains  while  taking  root,  and 
until  the  end  of  the  season,  when  it  is  detached. 
The  vine  from  which  the  layers  are  to  be  taken 
should  be  at  least  three  or  four  years  old,  and 
the  canes  should  have  been  well  ripened  the 
preceding  year.  The  canes  layered  on  the  same 
plant  should  always  bear  a  small  proportion  to 
those  not  layered ;  for  example,  a  plant  of  three 
canes  should  not  have  more  than  one  layered. 
A  layered  plant  is  shown  in  Fig,  110  The  soil 
around  the  mother  plant  should  be  made  fine 
and  mellow.  A  trench  is  to  be  made  some  ten 
or  twelve  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  deep,  but 
it  must  not  approach  nearer  than  two  feet  to 
the  mother  plant,  to  avoid  damaging  the  roots, 


t  Propagation".  281 

or  having  them  interfere  with  the  layer.  The 
cane  to  be  layered  should  be  cut  some  four  or 
five  feet  long.  When  the  buds  have  broken, 
the  cane  should  be  laid  carefully  in  the  trench, 
secured  there  by  pegs,  and  all  the  lower  buds 
rubbed  off.  Of  the  remaining  upper  buds,  from 
two  to  four  may  be  selected  for  making  the 
young  plants,  the  interval  between  the  selected 
buds  being  as  great  as  possible.  When  the 
young  canes  have  grown  about  six  inches,  a 
couple  of  inches  of  soil  must  be  heaped  about 
each  of  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  six  or 
eight  inches  of  the  layered  cane  uncovered  be- 
tween each  of  the  growing  canes,  which  must  re- 
main uncovered  for  a  week  or  so;  the  object 
being  to  cause  the  roots  to  grow  about  the 
young  canes,  while  the  uncovered  portion  has 
none.  The  root  action,  in  this  case,  is  concen- 
trated upon  given  points,  and  produces  better 
results  ;  and  in  the  fall  there  is  a  naked  portion 
of  cane  that  may  be  cut  off  without  destroying 
any  roots.  An  inch  or  so  of  soil  must  be  added 
as  the  young  canes  progress  in  growth,  till  the 
trench  is  finally  filled.  Stakes  should  be  put 
in  at  the  beginning  to  tie  the  canes  to  as  they 
grow,  as  shown  in  Fig.  110.  a, «,  show  where 
layers  have  been  taken  from  the  plant  in  former 


282  American  Grape  Culture. 


Fig.  110. 


Propagation.  283 

years,  e  stows  where  the  present  layer  is  to 
be  detached.  The  thallons  should  be  athallized 
ill  the  usual  manner. 

This  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  laying  a 
cane  in  the  ground,  and  letting  all  the  buds 
grow  that  will ;  but  it  is  the  way  to  make  good 
layers.  Not  more  than  four  plants  should  ever 
be  taken  from  one  layer,  and  two  or  three  will 
generally  be  much  better.  This  number  can 
not  be  exceeded  with  any  hope  of  making  good, 
well-rooted  plants.  The  plants  must  be  taken 
up  in  the  fall,  and  divided  by  cutting  off  the 
unrooted  portion  of  the  old  cane. 

Grafting. — ^The  native  vine  is  sometimes, 
though  not  often,  propagated  by  grafting.  This 
process  for  the  vine  possesses  very  few  of  the 
advantages  it  has  for  the  apple,  pear,  and  some 
other  fruits.  There  is  seldom  any  need  for  it, 
for  we  can  get  fruit  quite  as  soon  by  planting. 
In  the  green-house  or  grapery,  vine  grafting 
succeeds  very  well ;  but  in  the'  vineyard  the 
cases  of  failure  greatly  exceed  those  of  success. 
The  union  between  the  stock  and  graft  is  al- 
ways imperfect ;  hence  it  is  best  to  perform  the 
operation  under  ground,  where  the  graft  will 
take  root,  and  become  an  independent  plant 

There  are  several  modes  of  grafting  the  vine, 


284 


American  Grape  Culture. 


two  of  the  best  of  which  we  shall  illustrate 
and  describe.  They  are  both  peiformed  under 
ground.  The  earth  is  removed  from  around  the 
stock  of  the  plant,  so  as  to  lay  it  bare  some  six 
or  eight  inches,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  111.  The 


Fig.  111. 


stock  is  cut  square  off  four  or  five  inches  be- 
neath the  surface.  The  graft  is  then  prepared 
by  cutting  it  wedge-shaped  at  the  bottom.  It 
should  have  two  buds,  one  of  which  should  be 
between  the  wedge,  as  shown  at  h  on  the  left  of 
the  figure  :  the  other  bud  being  on  the  opposite 
side,  is  not  seen.  The  split  through  the  middle 
of  the  stock  should  be  made  with  a  thin-bladed 
knife,  and  held  open  with  a  thin-pointed  stick 
while  the  graft  is  inserted  in  its  place,  so  that 
the  bark  of  the  stock  and  graft  meet  on  the 
outside  edges.  The  operation  completed  is 
shown  in  the  engraving.  A  strip  of  bast 
should  be  bound  around  the  stock  sufficiently 
firm  to  keep  the  graft  in  its  place. 

The  success  of  the  operation  depends  very 
much  upon  keeping  the  graft  in  its  place  ;  great 


Propagation.  285 

care,  therefore,  should  be  used  to  prevent  it 
from  being  displaced.  The  hole  should  be 
filled  up  very  carefully,  and  without  pressing 
the  soil  against  the  graft.  It  should  be  well 
protected  from  disturbance  of  any  kind.  About 
a  foot  from  the  plant  put  in  sticks  at  such  an 
angle  that  their  ends  will  meet  over  the  plant, 
and  about  a  foot  above  it ;  tie  the  ends  together, 
and  over  the  sticks  put  a  piece  of  oiled  paper, 
muslin,  or  matting.  If  done  right,  it  will  look 
like  a  miniature  tent,  and  protect  the  young 
plant  from  sunshine  and  weather  as  well  as  ani- 
mals. It  should  be  removed  when  the  plant 
has  got  fairly  started.  If  the  graft  is  inserted 
in  the  fall,  it  will  be  well  protected  by  heaping 
sand  over  it  in  addition  to  the  above. 

In  the  next  method  the  grafting  is  also  done 
under  the  surface.  The  cut,  however,  is  less 
simple,  but  may  be  understood  by  examining 
Fig.  112.    The  graft  is  first  cut  square  off  at  the 


Pig  112. 

bottom.  A  thin  chip  is  then  pared  from  one 
side  to  the  bottom,  c?,  and  the  knife  next  entered 
at  the  edge  of  the  bottom,  and  dra^vn  up,  so  as 
to  cut  a  thin  tongue  where  the  chip  was  taken 


286  Americait  GrRAPE  Culture. 

off,  as  seen  at  d  on  the  right  of  the  figure.  The 
stock  IS  cut  nearly  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 
grees, and  split  through  the  center  at  right  an- 
gles with  the  sloping  cut,  and  the  upper  edge 
of  the  slit  rounded  off.  The  tongue  is  then  in- 
serted in  the  split,  so  as  to  cover  the  surface  of 
the  angular  cut  on  both  sides  of  the  split.  The 
engraving  shows  the  manner  of  doing  this  very 
plainly.  The  graft  should  be  tied  in  its  place 
with  strips  of  bast  or  cotton  twine.  The  oper- 
ation completed,  the  hole  is  to  be  filled  up,  and 
the  plant  protected  in  the  manner  above  de- 
scribed. The  portion  of  the  graft  projecting 
beyond  the  stock  allows  the  graft  to  take  root 
more  readily  than  the  first  plan,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  better  ;  but  not  being  so  simple,  is 
less  likely  to  be  well  done,  and  its  advantages, 
in  consequence,  mostly  lost. 

There  are  several  other  methods  of  grafting 
the  vine,  some  of  which  answer  the  purpose  of 
amusement;  but  there  are  none  better  than 
those  given  above,  and  few  as  good. 

Something  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  best 
time  for  grafting.  It  may  be  done  in  the  fall, 
early  in  the  spring,  or  after  the  vines  have 
begun  growing.  It  has  been  successfully  done 
at  all  these  times,  and  so  it  has  failed  at  all  of 


Propagation.  28*7 

them.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  success  is 
affected -to  a  considerable  degree  by  the  weather, 
climate,  and  condition  of  the  vine.  In  the 
grapery  success  is  quite  common ;  in  the  vine- 
yard it  is  quite  the  contrary.  This,  and  other 
circumstances,  would  seem  to  indicate  certain 
hygrometric  conditions  as  influencing  success. 
At  one  time  it  will  be  highly  gratifying;  at 
others  quite  discouraging.  All  that  is  certain 
is,  that  grafting  the  grape  in  the  vineyard  is  an 
uncertain  thing.  Far  north,  fall  grafting  is  not 
advisable;  where  the  climate  is  mild,  however, 
it  may  be  practiced  with  tolerable  success.  Dr. 
Massie's  published  experiments,  conducted  about 
six  years  ago,  went  to  show  that  the  success  of 
fall  grafting  depended  measurably  upon  the 
kind  of  winter  that  followed,  notwithstanding 
all  the  care  that  was  taken  to  protect  the  grafts 
by  various  appliances.  That  is  precisely  our 
own  experience.  To  conclude,  graft  in  the  fall 
in  mild  latitudes,  or  in  early  spriifg,  as  may  be 
most  convenient,  and  do  not  expect  any  large 
measure  of  success  in  either  case;  but  if  you 
fail,  do  not  mourn  over  it,  for  your  loss  has  been 
small.  Grafting  the  native  grape  is  at  best  but 
an  amusement,  and  should  be  so  regarded.  In 
our  climate,  it  will  probably  never  be  reduced  to 


288  American  Grape  Culture. 

a  certainty ;  and  this  is  tlie  less  to  be  regretted 
in  a  plant  that  produces  its  fruit  so  soon  from 
an  eye  or  a  cutting. 

Seeds — Hybridizing. — It  seems  hardly  neces- 
sary to  remark  that  new  varieties  are  produced 
from  seed  alone.  It  has  been  thought  by  some 
that  we  should  look  chiefly  to  hybrids  between 
the  native  and  foreign  grape  for  any  marked 
improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  former,  while 
others  have  doubted  the  possibility  of  getting  a 
hybrid  between  them.  We  believe  it  is  pos- 
sible, though  quite  difficult ;  but  we  are  by  no 
means  convinced  that  it  is  desirable,  or  that  we 
shall  gain  what  we  wish.  The  Allen  may  be 
taken  as  an  example.  This  presents  good  evi- 
dence of  being  a  true  hybrid.  The  fruit  is  ex- 
cellent, but  the  vine  is  tender  and  susceptible, 
and  withers  away  when  exposed  to  the  force  of 
our  trying  climate  :  in  this  respect  yielding  to 
the  fate  that  has  always  overtaken  one  of  its 
parents.  No  fact  in  grape  culture  is  better  de- 
monstrated than  that  the  foreign  grape  is  not 
adapted  to  our  climate.  It  has  cost  us  many 
thousands  of  dollars  to  prove  the  fact,  and  that 
ought  to  satisfy  us.  Is  it  wise,  then,  to  seek  an 
infusion  of  blood  from  a  source  that  has  been 
proved  to  be   constitutionally  unfitted  to  our 


Propagation.  289 

wants  ?  Can  we  produce  a  hybrid  that  will  not 
possess  this  constitutional  failing?  We  think 
not.  It  must  appear,  more  or  less,  in  the  whole 
race  produced  in  this  way.  If  we  get  enough 
of  the  goodness  of  the  foreign  grape  to  make  it- 
self apparent  in  the  seedling,  we  shall  just  as 
certainly  get  enough  of  the  evil  to  make  the 
goodness  of  little  or  no  use  to  us.  The  charac- 
teristics of  one  parent  or  the  other  will,  as  a  rule, 
predominate  in  any  hybrids  that  may  be  raised 
in  this  way,  though  we  are  not  unmindful  that 
crosses,  where  both  parents  possess  the  requisite 
hardiness,  may,  in  time,  be  produced  that  shall 
unite  the  most  desirable  qualities  of  l)oth  ;  but, 
aside  from  the  remoteness  of  the  possibility,  it 
may  well  be  doubted  whether  such  crosses  will, 
after  all,  be  so  well  suited  to  our  climate  as  to 
possess  any  great  value  for  general  cultivation. 
But  we  may  be  pointed  to  Rogers's  Hybrids  as 
militating  against  this  view  of  the  subject.  We 
think  they  fail  to  reach  it ;  or,  if  it  be  admitted 
that  they  do,  they  are  only  examples  of  the  na- 
tive parent  predominating  in  a  very  remarkable 
manner,  and  thus  support  our  view.  But  there 
are  good  grounds  for  questioning  the  hybrid 
character  of  these  grapes.  A  very  critical  exam- 
ination of  the  wood,  leaves,  and  fruit,  fails  to 

19 


290  American  Grape  Culture. 

detect  the  foreign  element  in  either.  They  pos- 
sess, on  the  contrary,  all  the  peculiar  characteris- 
tics of  the  native  grape  in  wood,  leaves,  and  fruit. 
The  flesh  of  all  of  them  is  more  or  less  "  but- 
tery," like  the  Concord,  though  in  several  the 
fibrous  center  ripens  much  better  than  in  the 
Concord,  and,  it  may  be  added,  they  are  much 
better  grapes.  In  a  very  few  there  is  a  little 
of  the  meaty  consistency  seen  in  the  Diana,  and 
these  begin  to  be  vinous  in  their  flavor,  and  in 
quality  are  the  best  of  these  seedlings.  But  in 
all  this  we  can  not  detect  the  mixture  of  any 
foreign  element.  The  experiments  of  Mr. 
Rogers  are  exceedingly  interesting,  not  because 
he  has  failed  or  succeeded  in  producing  hybrid 
grapes,  l3ut  because  he  has  demonstrated  that  the 
wild  grape,  through  its  seedlings,  is  susceptible 
of  a  very  high  degree  of  improvement.  That  is 
the  source  to  which  we  must  look  for  any  valu- 
able results.  We  would  not  say  one  word  to 
discourage  him  in  his  efforts  to  produce  hybrids, 
but  would  suggest  that  he  also  use  some  of  our 
best  native  grapes  of  a  vinous  character  in  his 
experiments.  He  will  find  less  trouble  in  fertili- 
zing, and  produce  far  more  valuable  results. 

To  ]iyl)ridize  the  grape  is  no  easy  matter ; 
yet  there  are  scores  of  people  who  think  they 


Propagation.  291 

Lave  succeeded,  and  the  country  is  likely  to  be 
flooded  with  their  hybrids.  There  is  one  man, 
indeed,  who  claims  to  have  discovered  a  simple 
way  of  hybridizing  the  grape,  which  makes  the 
process  positively  certain :  he  has  learned  the 
"  signs"  by  which  we  may  know  that  hybridiza- 
tion has  been  really  accomplished.  This  man 
sent  to  a  friend  for  some  Black  Hamburgh  pol- 
len. This  friend  being  somewhat  of  a  wag,  sent 
him  instead  some  pollen  of  the  spinach.  On 
being  written  to  for  the  result,  the  reply  came 
that  "  It  had  taken  beautifully  !"  "  There  was  no 
mistake  about  it!"  We  mention  this  circum- 
stance to  show  how  easily  one  can  deceive  him- 
self in  supposing  that  he  has  hybridized  the 
grape. 

The  theory  of  hybridizing  is  simple  enough, 
and  easily  understood ;  but  its  practice  in  the 
case  of  the  grape  is  not  without  its  difficulties. 
There  are  two  important  parts  of  flowers,  the 
male  and  female,  the  latter  being  the  pistil,  and 
the  former  the  stamens ;  the  last  bear  at  their 
ends  the  anthers,  which  furnish  the  pollen.  It 
is  the  pollen  from  the  anthers,  falling  on  the  pis- 
til, which  effects  fertilization,  and  the  consequent 
production  of  seed  or  fruit.  To  produce  hy- 
brids and  varieties,  pollen  is  taken  from  the  an- 


292  American  Grape  Culture. 

thers  of  one  species  or  variety,  and  applied  to 
the  pistil  of  another  species  or  variety.  But,  in 
order  to  secure  fertilization  by  the  pollen  used, 
the  stamens  must  be  removed  from  the  flower 
fertilized  before  the  anthers  have  shed  their  pol- 
len. It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  cut  off 
the  anthers  some  time  before  the  pollen  is  ripe. 
In  some  kinds  of  flowers  it  becomes  difficult  to 
do  this,  since  fertilization  takes  place  before  the 
flower  expands,  and  the  difficulty  is  greatly  in- 
creased when  the  flower  is  so  small  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  handle  it. 

The  flower  of  the  grape,  among  others,  is 
difficult  to  fertilize  artificially  in  the  open  air. 
The  first  thino;  to  be  done  is  to  remove  the 
stamens  from  the  flower  to  be  fertilized,  and 
this  must  be  done  some  time  before  it  expands, 
or  sheds  its  envelope,  or  the  flower  will  be  fertil- 
ized in  the  natural  way,  and  it  is  never  fertilized 
a  second  time.  It  is  next  absolutely  necessary 
to  protect  the  flower,  not  only  from  the  access 
of  insects,  but  also  from  the  air,  or  the  pistil  will 
be  fertilized  by  the  pollen  that  is  always  float- 
ing about  the  vineyard  at  this  time.  When  the 
flower  has  opened  on  the  vine  that  it  is  proposed 
to  cross  with,  the  pollen  must  be  collected 
from  it  on  a  fine  camel's  hair  pencil,  and  brushed 


Propagation.  293 

over  the  pistil  of  the  flower  previously  prepared. 
This  is  a  critical  moment ;  for  just  as  you  re- 
move the  covering  from  the  prepared  flower  the 
pollen  floating  in  the  air  may  rush  in  and  fertil- 
ize the  pistil  before  you  can  touch  it,  and  thus 
your  purpose  will  be  defeated.  The  fact  is, 
there  can  be  no  certainty  about  hybridizing  the 
grape  unless  the  vine  is  shut  up  by  itself,  and 
all  flowers  removed  from  it  except  those  to  be 
fertilized.  Hence  it  is  that  many  think  they 
have  raised  hybrids  when  they  really  have  not, 
and  it  is  nothing  but  the  imagination  that  sees 
in  them  any  thing  of  a  hybrid  character.  The 
hybrid  business  is  being  rather  overdone. 

Carefully  conducted  experiments  in  raising 
seedlings  and  hybrids  should  be  encouraged, 
even  to  the  extent,  as  elsewhere  remarked,  of 
extending  the  protection  of  the  law  to  all  plants 
raised  in  this  way.  Propi'ietorship,  in  this 
respect,  should  be  as  absolute  as  it  is  in  regard 
to  any  other  kind  of  property.  If  this  were 
so,  it  would  make  inoperative  the  excuse  often 
given  for  "  coddling"  seedling  plants  to  a  degree 
that  renders  any  real  knowledge  of  their  hardi- 
ness and  period  of  ripening  almost  an  impos- 
sibility. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  conclusion,  that  seed- 


294  Americak  Grape  Culture. 

lings  from  our  cultivated  varieties  var}''  greatly 
in  their  character.  The  great  majority  of  them 
will  be  inferior  to  the  parent,  showing  a  marked 
tendency  to  go  back  to  the  woods ;  some  will 
resemble  the  parent  so  closely  as  to  be  scarcely, 
if  at  all,  distinguishable  from  it,  being,  in  fact, 
simply  reproductions ;  and  very  rarely  one  may 
be  found  superior  to  the  parent.  Seedlings 
just  like  their  parents  are  getting  to  be  quite 
common  ;  but  we  can  not  perceive  any  good 
reason  for  multiplying  kinds  in  this  way.  ,  A 
seedling  ought  not  only  to  be  better  than  its 
parent,  or  than  other  kinds,  but  also  have  some 
distinctive  characteristic.  Seedling^s,  as^ain,  will 
often  differ  broadly  from  their  parents  in  color. 
Those  from  the  Isabella,  for  example,  are  not 
unfrequently  green  in  color  instead  of  purple. 
It  is  characteristic  of  varieties  to  vary  in  this 
way. 


CHAPTER  XVn. 

ADDITIONAL   RESIAEKS    OIT  PLANTING. 

Additional  Remarks  on  Planting. — ^The  di- 
rections already  given  are  intended  for  general 
application,  and  will  meet  the  requirements  of 
all  ordinary  cases;  but  there  are  here  and 
there  peculiarities  and  extremes  which  are  best 
treated  by  themselves ;  for  we  could  not,  in 
planting  a  single  vine,  stop  to  explain  excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule,  without  greatly  en- 
dangering the  clearness  of  the  subject.  There 
are  certain  conditions  of  soil  which  call  for 
exceptional  treatment  in  regard  to  the  depth  at 
which  the  roots  of  the  vine  should  be  placed. 
A  very  heavy  clay,  under  certain  circumstances, 
may  require  the  roots  to  be  quite  near  the  sur- 
face, while  a  gravelly,  stony,  shaly,  or  other 
light  or  very  porous  soil,  may  require  them  to 
be  below  the  usual  depth. 

There  are  two  quite  common  and  fatal  mis- 


296  American  Grape  Culture. 

takes:  one  consists  in  planting  too  deep,  and 
the  other  too  shallow,  and  it  would  be  difficult 
to  say  which  has  destroyed  most  vines  and 
trees.  If  vines  are  planted  too  deep,  they  be- 
come enfeebled,  and  are  winter  killed ;  if  they 
are  planted  too  shallow,  the  frost  heaves  the 
crowns  above  the  surface,  and  they  are  also 
winter  killed.  The  vines  are  then  said  to  be 
tender,  and  the  variety,  in  consequence,  suffers 
in  reputation ;  whereas  the  cause  of  winter  kill- 
ing often  lies,  not  in  the  tenderness  of  the 
vine,  but  in  the  want  of  knowledge  or  judgment 
in  the  planter.  There  are  other  causes  of  win- 
ter killing,  it  is  true,  not  related  to  j^lanting, 
but  which,  as  we  have  remarked  elsewhere, 
are,  to  a  good  degree,  within  the  control  of  the 
vineyardist. 

A  very  common  fault  in  planting  consists  in 
not  placing  the  crown  of  the  plant  at  the 
necessary  depth.  We  have  seen  many  hun- 
dreds of  vines  with  the  middle  and  ends  of  the 
roots  six  inches  below  the  surface,  while  the 
crown  was  scarcely  two.  The  winter  often  kills 
the  roots  of  such  vines,  but  it  first  strikes  the 
crown.  Now,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
when  the  roots  (in  this  book  at  least)  are  di- 
rected to  be  covered  four  or  six  inches  deep,  it 


Additional  Remarks  on  Planting.      297 

is  tlie  roots  proceeding  immediately  from  the 
crown  that  are  to  be  covered  four  or  six  inches, 
and  not  the  ends  of  the  roots ;  the  last,  when 
the  work  is  well  done,  will  be  a  couj^le  of 
inches  deeper  than  the  crown.  The  crown  of 
the  plant,  if  the  hand  is  taken  from  it  before 
the  soil  is  worked  firmly  about  it  to  the  depth 
of  two  or  three  inches,  will  commonly  spring  up, 
often  two  or  three  inches ;  and  when  the  ground 
becomes  settled,  the  crown  of  the  plant  will  be 
found  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  surface. 
We  have  found  this  to  be  very  common,  espe- 
cially where  vines  are  planted  in  large  numbers, 
and  consequently  in  much  haste.  Thus  it  is 
often  the  case  that  those  who  think  they  have 
planted  ten  or  twelve  inches  deep,  have  really 
not  planted  more  than  six  or  eight,  while  those 
who  think  they  have  planted  five  or  six  inches, 
have  not  planted  more  than  three  or  four.  It 
seems  to  be  very  little  understood,  also,  that 
the  soil  will  settle  without  carrying  the  plant 
down  with  it ;  and  this  constitutes  another  ele- 
ment of  deception,  for  which  allowance  is  seldom 
made. 

These  grave  errors  may  be  easily  avoided 
by  observing  the  following  practice :  when  the 
hole   or  trench  is  dug,  press  the   soil   down 


298  Amekican  Grape  Cultuee.  * 

firmly,  but  without  packing  it ;  this  may  be 
done  with  the  feet ;  then  make  a  nice  bed  of  fine 
soil  for  the  roots  to  rest  on.  The  plant  having 
been  put  in  its  place,  and  the  roots  spread  out, 
it  must  be  held  there  until  two  or  three  inches 
of  soil  are  worked  in  among  the  roots  firmly ; 
but  if,  in  the  act  of  removing  the  hand,  the 
plant  shows  any  signs  of  springing  up,  the  hold 
must  be  retained,  and  more  soil  worked  in.  It 
takes  but  an  instant  to  ascertain  whether  the 
plant  will  retain  its  place.  When  made  secure, 
the  hole  may  be  filled  up  rapidly ;  but  as  the 
soil  is  thrown  in,  it  should  be  made  just  fimi, 
and  no  more.  The  technical  term  for  this  is 
"firming."  When  planted  in  this  way,  about 
an  inch  may  be  allowed  for  settling;  in  the 
common  way,  three  or  four  inches  must  gen- 
erally be  allowed ;  that  is  to  say,  where  the 
roots  are  wanted  about  four  inches  from  the 
surface,  they  must  be  placed  three  or  four  inches 
deeper  than  this.  For  example  :  when  we  say, 
in  planting,  that  the  roots  must  be  covered 
about  four  inches,  they  must  be  placed  three  or 
four  inches  deeper  than  this  to  allow  for  set- 
tling, if  the  common  method  of  planting  is  pur- 
sued ;  but  if  the  bottom  of  the  trench  or  hole  is 
"firmed,"  as  well  as  the  soil  as  it  is  put  in,  not 


Additional  Eemarks  on  Planting.      299 

even  an  inch  need  be  allowed  for  settling ;  for 
the  word  covering,  as  we  use  it,  means  the  dis- 
tance between  the  roots  and  the  surface  when 
every  thing  has  settled  to  its  place.  It  must 
be  remarked,  that  some  soils  sink  or  settle 
much  more  than  others,  and  this  condition  must 
also  be  taken  into  consideration. 

In  planting  on  hillsides,  if  they  are  steep, 
we  make  a  considerable  departure  from  ordi- 
nary conditions.  It  is  often  supposed  that  the 
roots  here  are  a  foot  or  more  deep,  when  they 
are  really  not  more  than  six  inches.  We  sur- 
prised a  large  planter  recently  by  convincing 
him  that  his  roots  were  six  inches  deep,  and 
not  a  foot.  Care  must  be  used,  in  planting 
here,  to  have  the  roots  deep  enough  on  the  face 
of  the  hill :  the  hole  would  be  better  if  dug  a 
little  sloping.  If  the  reader  will  exercise  a  little 
good  judgment  in  these  and  similar  matters,  he 
will  have  little  or  nothing  to  fear  from  the  win- 
ter killing  of  his  roots,  provided  there  is  no 
standinof  water  about  the  roots  or  the  collar  of 
the  plant.  "Where  much  planting  is  done,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  divide  the  men  into  sets,  select- 
ing two  good  men  to  put  the  plant  in  its 
place,  with  enough  soil  worked  around  it  to 
hold  it  there,  while  others  follow  and  fill  up. 


300  American  Grape  Culture. 

In  this  way  both,  skill  and  labor  will  be  econo- 
mized. 

The  opposite  or  extreme  conditions  alluded 
to  above  will  be  best  illustrated  if  we  select, 
as  examples,  an  account  of  two  well  known 
vineyards. 

At  Kelley's  Island  the  soil  is  generally  clay, 
with  just  enough  limestone,  sand,  and  gravel  to 
make  it  the  most  adhesive  and  compact  possible, 
so  that  the  labor  of  first  breaking  it  up  is  very 
great,  and  not  to  be  accomplished  by  the  usual 
means.  The  underlying  rock  is  often  not  much 
more  than  a  foot  below  the  surface,  and  pre- 
vents the  escape  of  water  in  times  of  wetness. 
Here  the  vines  can  not  be  set  or  covered  deeply, 
nor  can  the  ground  be  deeply  worked.  If  this 
shallow  soil  should  be  worked  and  enriched 
down  to  the  point  where  water  lodges,  the  roots 
formed  there  in  time  of  drought  would  suffer  in 
time  of  wetness,  and  the  health  of  the  vines  and 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  would,  in  consequence, 
be  greatly  impaired.  Here  the  indications  are, 
to  plant  as  near  the  surface  as  will  permit  of 
shallow  cultivation,  and  be  consistent  with  win- 
ter endurance  under  the  very  favorable  modify- 
ing influences  of  the  lake,  without  which  the 
locality  would  be  very  unsuitable  for  a  vine- 
yard. 


Additional  Kemarks  oisr  Planting.      301 

In  contrast  to  this,  may  be  adduced  tlie  steep, 
gravelly  liillside  whicli  generally  prevails  at 
Hammondsport,  where  the  drift  soil  has  no  prac- 
tical limit  to  its  depth,  and  where  water  at  the 
roots  is  never  feared.  Their  enemy  comes  to 
young  vines  in  the  form  of  early  drought,  and 
the  indications  in  this  case  are  as  deep  planting 
as  may  consist  with  the  avoidance  of  what  is 
very  indefinitely  called  "  smothering"  the  plants. 
Four  inches  of  depth  at  Kelley's  Island  would 
not  be  more  than  equaled  by  eight  or  ten 
inches  at  Pleasant  Valley. 

In  that  remarkable  vine  district  occupying 
a  great  part  of  the  shore  region  of  Lake  Erie, 
these  two  extreme  conditions  are  often  found 
in  immediate  contiguity,  and  present  a  geo- 
logical study  but  little  less  interesting  than 
the  Valley  of  the  Walkill.  The  tenacious 
clay  and  the  deep  gravelly  drift  meet  in  some 
places  as  if  on  a  dividing  line,  while  in 
others  they  run  into  each  other  by  almost 
imperceptible  gradations.  These  soils,  under 
propitious  circumstances,  are  so  favorable  to 
grape  cultm^e,  that  the  fortunate  possessor  of 
any  one  of  them,  if  we  may  judge  from 
what  is  said,  thinks  his  own  the  best.  Under 
adverse  circumstances,  however,  like  those  of 
last  winter,  which  are  always  liable  to  occur, 


S02  American  Grape  Culture. 

they  will  till  suffer  unless  the  treatment  con- 
forms tq  the  principles  we  have  laid  down; 
and  we  may  confidently  add,  as  the  result  of 
long  experience  and  widely  extended  observa- 
tion, that  when  these  natural  principles  are 
mastered  and  judiciously  applied,  no  such 
deep  discouragement  as  followed  the  effects 
of  last  winter  will  again  occur,  nor  will 
young  vines,  soon  after  being  brought  to  a 
bearing  condition,  begin  to  suffer  from  ex- 
haustion. Success  will  always  be  best  assured 
by  working  wdth  nature  rather  than  against  her. 
In  planting  large  vines,  such  as  are  represent- 
ed in  Figs.  3  and  8,  or  any  other,  the  roots  of 
which,  after  proper  pruning,  remain  long,  large 
holes  will  be  required.  If  the -plants  are  to  be 
set  as  near  as  two  or  three  feet  in  the  rows,  it 
will  be  better  to  make  a  continuous  trench,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  113.  Preparatory  to  plant- 
ing in  this  case,  a  trench  is  made  fourteen 
inches  deep,  and  in  the  bottom  of  it  is  placed 
a  little  more  than  two  inches  in  depth  of  good 
surface  soil,  leaving  it  twelve  inches  deep  for 
beginning  to  plant.  At  the  place  for  each  vine 
a  little  mound  is  raised  about  two  inches 
high,  on  which  set  the  vines,  and  the  planting 
proceeds  as  we  have  already  described,  until 
the  trench  is  filled  to  within  six  inches  of  the 


Additional  Remauks  on  Planting.      303 

surface.  During  the  early  part  of  the  season, 
and  until  the  last  of  July,  the  trench  is  not 
permitted  to  fill  up.    Fig,  114,  at  D,  D,  D, 


Fig.  lis. 


represents  the  appearance  of  the  vines  about  the 
first  of  August,  after  having  had  all  the  sum- 
mer operations  properly  done.  F  {Fig.  113) 
shows  one  of  the  vines  as  it  appears  when  ready 
for  the  first  tying,  which  should  not  confine  it 
closely  to  the  stake,  but  only  be  sufficient  to 
secure  it  from  being  broken  by  the  wind. 
When  large  plants  are  used,  it  is  ^vell  to  take 
the  canes  from  the  second  or  third  buds,  so  that 


304 


American  Grape  Culture. 


tlie  subterraneous  portion  may  consist  entirely 
of  old  wood. 

In  compact,  clayey  soils  the  vines  may  be  set 
two  inches  less  in  depth,  and  the  basin  left  open 


H  HOLTOti  CNGR  NY 


Fis.  114. 


one  inch  less  in  depth.  In  November,  if  it  has 
not  been  done  before,  the  trench  may  be  entirely 
filled,  and  made  a  little  rounding  over  the  vines, 
so  that  the  water  will  run  off.  The  work  of 
filling  may  be  chiefly  done  with  a  jdIow,  (prun- 
ing having  been  done  as  already  directed,)  leav- 
ing a  small  dead  furrow  midway  between  the 
rows. 


CHAPTER  XVni. 

EEPLACma   AND     EENEWINa    SPURS   AND   ARMS 

OPPOSITE    ARMS LENGTH     OF     ARMS THEIR 

GENERAL   MANAGEMENT — OVERCROPPING. 

Heplacing  Spurs. — "When  detailing  the  man- 
ner in  which  arms  and  spurs  are  formed,  the 
reader's  attention  was  kept  fixed  directly  on  the 
object  before  him,  so  that  he  might  obtain  a 
clear  idea  of  the  principles  applied,  leaving 
exceptions  and  accidents  to  be  treated  of  sepa- 
rately. We  therefore  propose  now  to  speak  of 
such  of  these  accidents  as  the  novice  would  not 
be  likely  to  remedy,  with  the  limited  knowledge 
which  he  is  supposed  to  possess. 

When  giving  the  details  for  the  formation  of 
spurs ^  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  every  bud 
set  apart  for  the  purpose  would  grow  and  make 
a  spur ;  but  a  bud  will  sometimes  get  accident- 
ally rubbed  off,  or  the  young  cane  will  get 
broken,  or  some  accident  will  leave  a  vacancy 

20 


306 


American  Grape  Culture. 


just  where  a  spur  ought  to  "be.  There  are 
several  ways  in  which  such  a  vacancy  may  be 
filled,  one  of  the  simplest  of  which  is  shown  in 


Fig.  115. 

Fig.  115.  A  is  a  portion  of  an  arm  from  which 
a  bud  is  missing.  Its  place  is  supplied  by  tak- 
ing a  cane  from  the  nearest  adjoining  bud  on  the 
under  side  of  the  arm,  and  bringing  it  up  to  the 
place  of  the  missing  bud  in  the  manner  shown. 
The  buds/,/,  are  rubbed  off,  and  a  double  spur 
formed  from  the  two  upper  buds. 

In  case  there  should  be  no  lower  buds  from 
which  to  grow  a  cane,  as  may  be  the  case  when 


Fig.  116. 


they  are  rubbed  off,  then  the  next  simplest  me- 
thod is  shown  in  Fig.  116,  in  which  A  is  a 
portion  of  an  arm.    Cut  an  adjoining  cane  down 


Replacing  Spues. 


307 


to  tlie  two  lowest  buds,  and  grow  two  canes 
from  it ;  if  tlie  cane  next  tlie  missing  bud  be 
from  a  base  bud,  so  much  the  better.  At  the 
next  pruning,  bend  this  cane  down  parallel  with 
the  ann,  and,  selecting  a  bud  over  the  missing 
one,  cut  the  cane  at  that  point,  as  shown  at  «■, 
and  tie  it  there  securely  with  bast  or  twine. 
The  buds  e,  ^,  e,  must  be  rubbed  off.  A  cane 
will  grow  fi'om  at,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line, 
and  this  is  converted  into  a  spur.  The  cane/ 
will  make  a  spur  in  its  proper  place.  This  arm 
was  extended  from  the  point  ^,  and  the  bud 
there  "  missed,"  and  this  method  was  taken  to 
replace  it. 


Fig.  HT. 


Another  plan  is  seen  in  Fig.  117.  In  this 
case,  a  chip  is  cut  from  the  arm,  as  shown  at  C. 
The  adjoining  cane  is  then  bent  down,  and  cut 
off  at  the  proper  length.  About  one  third  of 
the  thickness  of  the  cane  is  then  shaved  off,  so 
as  to  fit  nicely  the  cut  in  the  aim.     It  must  then 


308  American  Grape  Culture. 

be  bound  firmly  witli  bast,  but  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  bud  a.  All  the  buds  marked 
6  must  be  rubbed  off.  If  the  base  bud,  5,  has 
not  been  injured,  it  will  break  strongly,  in 
which  case  grow  a  cane  from  it  for  a  spur; 
otherwise  grow  a  cane  from  the  lowest  bud  ^, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  In  many  cases 
the  union  will  become  so  perfect  by  this  me- 
thod that  the  connecting  cane,  at  the  next 
pruning,  may  be  cut  off  at  \  li.  If  it  does  not 
become  thus  perfect,  the  cane  may  remain  as  it 
is.  A  cane  will  grow  from  ^,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  which  is  to  be  converted  into  a 
spur. 

Still  another  method,  but  not  very  different 
from  the  last,  is  shown  in  Fig.  118,  A,  as  be- 


fore, being  a  portion  of  an  arm.  In  this  case, 
bend  down  an  adjoining  cane,  and  cut  it  off  at 
the  proper  length.  Next  cut  the  end  at  an 
acute  angle,  and  from  the  extreme  end  cut  a 
piece  so  as  to  leave  an  angular  face  about  one 
third  the  thickness  of  the  cane.  Now  cut 
from  the  arm  an  angular  piece  that  will  admit 


Eenewing  Spurs.  309 

the  end  of  the  cane  exactly  and  evenly,  as 
shown  in  the  engraving.  It  must  then  be 
bound  in  its  place  firmly,  and  the  cane  also  tied 
to  the  arm  in  the  middle,  to  prevent  it  from 
springing.  The  buds  e  are  to  be  rubbed  off. 
A  cane  must  be  grown  from  the  bud  h  for 
a  spur,  and  another  from  a  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

By  one  or  other  of  these  methods  a  spur 
may  be  readily  replaced  at  any  time,  and  the 
arm  kept  in  full  bearing.  The  union  of  arm 
and  spur  is  not  essential ;  the  spur  will  do  well 
without  it,  as  in  the  example  first  given.  In 
the  examples  above,  the  arms  are  young  and 
only  just  ready  to  spur;  but  the  spurs  may 
be  replaced  on  an  old  arm  just  as  easily  by 
takino;  the  lowest  cane  from  an  adjoining  spur. 
On  an  old  arm,  however,  there  is  seldom  a 
necessity  for  replacing  spurs  in  this  way,  if  the 
vine  has  been  well  used;  for  dormant  buds 
seem  to  collect  in  proportion  to  the  age  of  the 
vine ;  they  would  seem,  indeed,  to  be  a  "  pro- 
vision against  old  age." 

Renewing  Spurs. — It  sometimes,  however 
becomes  necessary  or  desirable  to  renew  old 
spurs.  In  time  some  of  them  may  get  to  be 
inconveniently  long  or   ill-shaped ;    and  if  for 


310  American  Grape  Culture. 

this,  or  any  other  reason,  it  should  be  wished 
to  renew  them,  the  reader  should  know  that  he 
can  generally  do  so.  We  present  some  exam- 
ples, all  of  thorn  taken  from  life.  It  will  give 
the  reader  a  clearer  idea  of  the  subject  if  we 
describe  what  was  actually  done  in  each  case. 
Fig.  119  is  from  an  arm  that  had  been  laid 


down  one  year.  The  A  on  the  right  shows 
where  the  cane  had  been  pruned.  It  was  cut 
low  to  start  two  base  buds,  but  only  one  grew, 
and  the  cane  from  this  got  so  broken  during 
the  winter  that  it  became  necessary  to  start 
again.  It  was  cut  at  the  left  A,  and  made  a 
fine  cane  for  a  spur.  It  is  ill-shaped,  to  be  sure, 
but  in  two  or  three  years,  or  as  soon  as  elab- 
orated matter  has  accumulated  at  the  junction 
of  the  arm  and  the  spur,  it  may  be  cut  off  at 


Renewing  Spues. 


311 


the  point  4  a,  and  renewed.  We  Lave  had 
several  cases  presenting  this  general  appear- 
ance, but  not  all  arising  in  the  same  way.  All 
we  wish  to  do  here  is  to  make  the  reader 
familiar  with  the  principle  and  its  applica- 
tion. 

We  may  remark  here,  that  as  the  spur  in- 
creases in  age  elaborated  matter  collects  at  the 
junction  of  the  arm  and  spur,  and  is  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  many  dormant  buds.  It  is 
no  doubt  also  concerned  in  producing  the  in- 
creased flavor  which  we  always  find  in  fruit  on 


old  arms  and  spurs.  It  presents  the  granular 
appearance  shown  in  Fig.  120.  The  little  glob- 
ules at  G  are  all  dormant  buds.  The  reader 
will  now  understand  how  it  is  that  we  get  new 


312 


American  Grape  Culture. 


canes  wlieii  old  spurs  are  cut  down.  The  spur 
in  this  example  was  cut  down,  and  two  canes 
selected,  the  one  seen  and  another  at  A.  Two 
canes  having  been  allowed  to  grow,  they  were 
both  rather  less  in  size  than  was  desired.  The 
cane  A  was  therefore  cut  off  to  strengthen  the 
one  left.  By  pruning  this  cane  just  above  ^,  and 
retaining  the  upper  base  bud  a^  a  good  double 
spur  was  formed.  It  might  have  been  pruned 
below  5,  as  there  were  two  very  nice  base  buds, 
«,  a. 


Fig.  121. 


In  the  next  example,  Fig.  121,  the  spui'  had 
become  rather  long,  and  was  narrow  at  the 
base,  (not  filled  out  like  Fig.  120,)  and  not 
satisfactory  in  several  particulars.  The  base 
being  examined,  and  the  appearance  of  dor- 
mant buds  proving  satisfactory,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  cut  the  spur  entirely  away,  and  this 


Renewing  Spues. 


313 


was  accordingly  done,  as  sliown  by  the  scar  on 
the  top  of  the  arm.  Two  or  three  little  shoots 
in  due  time  made  their  aj)pearance,  but  none 
of  them  well  placed ;  the  best,  however,  was 
selected,  and  grew  finely.  The  next  season 
a  bud  broke  in  a  very  good  position,  and  the 
new  cane  grown  last  season,  after  some  hesita- 
tion, was  cut  off,  as  shown  by  the  scar  on  the 
side.  The  newly  selected  shoot  made  a  fine 
cane,  as  the  reader  may  see.  The  progress  of 
such  a  case  would  naturally  be  watched  with  a 
great  deal  of  interest. 


In  the  last  example,  Fig.  122,  the  spur  was 
cut  off  nearly  half  an  inch  above  the  arm,  and 


314  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

tlie  cane  a  selected  and  grown.  This  cane  was 
cut  to  its  lowest  bud,  with  the  intention  of 
using  a  base  bud  for  a  second  cane ;  but  the 
case  was  neglected  for  some  time,  and  several 
small  canes  grew  from  the  remains  of  the  old 
spur,  and  spoiled  the  intention ;  these  little 
canes,  however,  were  at  once  removed,  as  shown 
by  A,  and  the  cane  from  the  renewed  spur 
made  a  very  good  growth.  If  it  had  not  been 
for  this  neglect,  the  little  stum]3  seen  just  be- 
low a  would  have  made  a  good  cane,  and, 
being  well  placed,  it  would  have  been  taken 
for  this  purpose. 

We  have  now  given  the  student  a  sufficient 
number  of  examples  to  make  him  familiar  with 
the  principle,  and  its  application  to  a  variety  of 
cases.  In  renewing  spurs,  the  chief  thing  to  be 
looked  after,  in  the  first  instance,  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  wood  at  the  base  of  the  spur.  The 
condition  of  the  little  protuberances  or  dor- 
mant buds  will  be  a  good  index  of  success. 
It  is  very  seldom  the  case  in  old  spurs,  how- 
ever, that  there  are  not  dormant  buds  joresent. 
In  the  second  place,  the  young  shoot  must  be 
selected  early,  and  all  the  others  rubbed  off,  so 
as  to  concentrate  the  action  of  the  plant  on 


Renewing  Arms.  315 

this  one,  and  not  liave  it  uselessly  wasted  on 
many. 

Renewing  Arms.  —  It  sometimes  becomes 
necessary  to  renew  or  replace  an  arm  from  acci- 
dental causes,  and  our  work  would  be  very  im- 
perfect if  we  failed  to  explain  liow  it  is  to  be 
done.  In  the  Guyot  plan,  with  a  permanent 
arm,  the  renewal  is  comparatively  easy.  The 
reader  will  remember  that  in  this  system  we 
have  two  or  three  long  canes  or  safety-valves, 
and  these  fm-nish  the  ready  means  for  making  a 
new  arm.  Let  us  suppose  the  arm  in  Fig.  48, 
p.  102,  is  to  be  renewed.  If  it  has  a  spur  or  two 
that  will  bear  fruit,  it  need  not  be  cut  off  yet ; 
but  unless  a  few  bunches  of  good  fruit  can  be 
got  from  it,  it  should  be  cut  entirely  away  at 
once.  Now  proceed  as  follows :  Take  the  low- 
est-placed cane,  6?,  cut  it  one  third  the  length 
of  the  arm,  and  lay  it  down  horizontally.  From 
this  point  extend  the  arm  in  the  usual  manner. 
If  the  old  arm,  or  any  portion  of  it,  was  left  on 
for  growing  fruit,  it  should  be  cut  away  at  the 
end  of  the  first  season.  One  of  the  advantages 
of  this  system  consists  in  the  facility  with 
which  an  arm  may  be  renewed. 

Double   Horizontal  Arms.  —  As   a   general 
thing,  the  best  way  to  renew  the  arms  is  to  cut 


316  American  Grape  Culture. 

eacli  arm  off  at  tlie  spur  nearest  to  tlie  stock, 
and  grow  a  single  cane  from  the  lowest  bud  on 
the  spur.  This  cane  must  next  be  bent  to  a 
horizontal  position,  and  the  arm  formed  by  de- 
grees in  the  usual  way.  This  severe  cutting 
back  will  cause  a  number  of  dormant  buds  to 
break  around  the  stock,  all  of  which  must  be 
rubbed  off.  They  have  been  called  "  water 
shoots,"  and  are  fruitless.  If  the  spurs  next 
the  stock  are  poor,  then  the  arms  must  be  cut 
pretty  close  to  the  stock,  leaving  no  spurs  what- 
ever. There  need  be  no  apprehension  in  regard 
to  getting  canes  in  this  case ;  there  will  be  an 
abundance  of  them,  and  the  trouble  will  con- 
sist in  making  a  choice  and  keeping  the  others 
from  growing.  The  canes  grown  under  such 
circumstances  should  early  be  bent  to  an  angle, 
and  the  end  pinched  out  wh^n  the  cane  is  about 
five  feet  long.  When  the  bud  at  the  end 
breaks,  let  the  cane  extend  a  couple  of  feet  be- 
fore it  is  pinched  again.  The  pinching  should 
be  repeated  three  or  four  times.  Unless  these 
precautions  are  taken,  the  lower  buds  will  be 
very  small.  More  than  the  usual  means  will 
be  necessary  to  equalize  the  action  of  the  plant, 
as  it  will  be  exceedingly  vigorous.     In  other 


Bene  WING  Upright  Stocks.  317 

respects,  tlie  new  arm  will  be  formed  in  the 
usual  manner. 

When  only  a  portion  of  an  arm  is  to  be  re- 
newed, the  cane  for  the  renewed  part  must  be 
taken  from  the  lowest  bud  on  the  spur  situated 
at  the  point  from  which  the  arm  is  to  be  re- 
newed. It  will  make  the  arm  just  a  little 
crooked  there ;  but  this,  aside  from  its  being  a 
little  unsightly,  will  in  no  respect  be  an  injury 
to  the  vine. 

If,  in  double  horizontal  aims,  each  arm,  as  we 
suggested  some  years  ago,  was  provided  with  a 
safety-valve,  or  upright  cane,  at  some  point  be- 
low the  bend  in  the  arm,  the  arms  in  this  sys- 
tem could  be  I'enewed  just  as  easily  as  in  the 
plan  of  Guyot.  Besides  this,  they  have  con- 
siderable value,  when  understood,  in  equaliz- 
ino:  action  throuo:hout  the  arm.  We  consider 
them  an  important  feature  in  the  horizontal  arm 
system. 

Upriglit  Stocks. — The  way  to  renew  these  is 
to  cut  within  a  foot  of  the  ground,  select  one 
from  among  the  many  canes  that  will  make  their 
appearance,  and  treat  it  in  the  manner  in  which 
the  stock  was  first  formed.  It  seems  not  to  be 
generally  understood  that  an  old  stock  is  full 
of  dormant  buds,  and  that  they  will  start  into 


318  American  Grape  Culture. 

growth  just  as  soon  as  tlie  vital  force  of  the 
j)laut  is  concentrated  upon  them  hj  cutting 
away  the  j)arts  above. 

Opposite  Arms. — The  French,  with  character- 
istic ingenuity  and  love  of  system,  have  a  fond- 
ness for  growing  vines  with  the  arms  and  spurs 
opposite  each  other :  they  have  utilized  the 
method  beyond  aU  other  peo]3le.  In  the  case 
of  arms,  they  proceed  from  the  same  level ;  and 
in  the  case  of  spiu's,  they  are  directly  opj^osite 
each  other  on  uj^right  stocks.  It  involves  some 
time  and  trouble,  but  will,  no  doubt,  interest  the 
novice,  and  we  therefore  pro2:)ose  to  explain  and 
illustrate  the  method  by  which  it  is  done,  leav- 
ing the  reader  to  apply  it  according  to  his  con- 
venience and  taste. 

Let  us,  for  an  example,  take  a  cane  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year,  such  as  is  shown  in  I^ig.  23,  p. 
65,  and  cut  it  down  to  two  buds.  Select  the 
strongest  cane,  and  rub  the  other  off.  When 
the  new  cane  has  grown  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  above  the  j^oint  where  it  is  desired  to 
have  the  arms,  cut  the  cane  off  at  this  point. 
Action,  in  this  case,  has  been  an^ested ;  the  vital 
principle  has  been  checked  in  its  upward  course. 
For  a  moment,  as  it  were,  it  seems  quiet,  but  it  is 
only  to  gather  at  all  points  with  renewed  energy. 


Opposite  Arms.  319 

The  thallons  make  a  vigorous  appearance,  and 
would  soon  take  tlie  place  of  tke  cane  that  has 
been  stopped.  But  .this  we  do  not  want.  We 
are  aiming  now  to  develop  and  burst  the  buds 
which,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  not  grow  till 
next  year.  The  thallons  are,  therefore,  in  our 
way,  and  we  remove  them  entirely.  This  con- 
centrates the  action  upon  the  buds ;  they  soon 
begin  to  swell,  and  in  no  very  long  time  break 
into  leaf,  and  our  chief  purjDose  is  accomplished. 
As  soon  as  growth  is  fairly  established  in  the 
young  shoots,  we  select  the  top  one,  and  pinch 
all  the  others  entirely  out,  for  we  not  only  have 


Fig.  123. 


no  use  for  them,  but  they  would  be  in  our  way. 
"When  the  new  cane  has  grown  about  eighteen 
inches  long,  it  will  have  the  appearance  shown 
in  Fig.  123  which  also  shows  where  the  cane  was 
cut  off.     When  the  young  cane  has  grown  three 


320  American  Grape  Culture. 

or  four  feet,  the  end  should  be  pinched,  and  the 
operation  repeated  as  often  as  the  new  growth 
has  three  .good-sized  leaves.  The  thallons  must 
be  athallized  the  same  as  any  other  cane. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  it  will  be  found  that 
the  base  of  the  new  cane  is  larger  than  the  cane 
that  was  stopped,  and  has  come  round  on  the  top 
of  it,  so  as  to  be  very  nearly  in  a  straight  line 
with  it.  At  the  base,  too,  will  be  found  several 
well-developed  buds,  on  opposite  sides,  and  also 
some  smaller  ones,  all  on  the  same  level.  It  is 
from  these  base  buds  that  the  arms  and  spurs 
are  taken. 

If  we  wish  to  grow  an  upright  stock  with 


Fig.  124. 

opposite  spurs,  the  cane  is  pruned  to  the  first 
bud  above  the  base  buds.  This  bud,  and  two 
base  buds  opposite  each  other,  are  selected  to 


Length  of  Arms.  321 

continue  the  system.  When  they  get  faMy 
started,  they  will  look  like  Fig.  124.  About  a 
foot  above  the  opposite  canes  two  more  are 
formed  by  cutting  at  A,  and  proceeding  as 
before.  In  this  way  the  stock  can  be  extended 
as  far  as  wanted  with  opposite  spurs,  which  are 
formed  in  the  usual  way  after  the  canes  are 
established. 

If  we  want  opposite  a/i'ms^  the  new  cane  is  cut 


Fig.  125. 

about  an  inch  above  the  base  buds,  two  of 
which  are  selected  for  canes,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
125,  which  is  an  exact  representation  from  life. 
Having  thus  explained  the  principle,  we  leave 
the  reader  to  work  it  out  fully  on  the  vine. 

Length  of  Arms. — In  this  connection  we  re- 
iterate that  arms  can  not  be  made  much  more 
than  four  feet  long,  without  greatly  weakening 

21 


322  American  Grape  Culture, 

the  spurs  near  tlie  stock.  The  reader  shouhl, 
indeed,  determine  his  mode  of  training  before 
planting,  so  as  to  provide  for  the  proper  length 
of  the  arms.  The  horizontal  arm,  whether 
double  or  single,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  sys- 
tem. The  plan  of  making  double  tiers  of  both 
is  a  good  one.  Four  feet  is  the  proper  distance 
to  plant  for  single  arms,  whether  of  one  or  two 
tiers.  Four  feet  is  also  the  proper  distance  for 
double  arms  of  two  tiers,  the  rows  in  both  cases 
being  six  feet  apart ;  but  for  double  arms  of  one 
tier,  six  feet  is  the  proper  distance,  the  rows  in 
this  case  being  from  four  to  six  feet  apart.  "With 
two  tiers,  the  upper  one  is  a  little  more  trouble 
to  cover.  It  is  done  as  follows  :  lay  down  the 
iirst  tier,  and  cover  by  applowing,  as  elsewhere 
explained;  before  turning  the  second  furrow 
slice,  lay  the  arms  of  the  second  tier  in  the  fur- 
row just  made,  and  finish  the  plowing  as  usual. 
General  Management  of  Arms. — The  reader 
should  be  quick  to  perceive  that  he  can  only 
attain  a  full  measure  of  success,  in  respect  to 
both  pleasure  and  profit,  by  first  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  wants  and  capacity  of  the 
vine,  and  then  ministerinf;  to  them  witli  con- 
stant  good  faith.  A  watchful  supervision  is 
needed  at  all  times,  and  a  few  suggestions  here 


General  Management  of  Arms.        323 
wiU  give  a  proper   direction  to   tliis  supervi- 


SIOU. 


In  the  spring,  in  particular,  when  the  vines 
are  beginning  to  grow,  the  vineyard  should  be 
gone  over  frequently  and  carefully,  to  see  that 
every  thing  is  going  on  as  it  should.     It  may 
be  that  a  cane  has  made  its  appearance  by  the 
side  of  a  spur,  which  it  would  be  desirable  to 
retain  to  take  its  place ;  or  it  may  be  that  seve- 
ral little  shoots  are  growing  around  the  spur, 
which  would  prove  hurtful  if  not  speedily  re- 
moved.     It  will  sometimes  be  the  case,  also,  in 
double  spurs,  that  the  lower  cane,  for  spurring 
next  season,  may  be  trained  into  a  better  posi- 
tion, if  attended   to  in  time.     Sometimes,  too, 
thei^  may,  at  first,  be  a  want  of  action  in  the 
spurs  nearest  the  stock,  which  may  be  supplied 
by  lowering  the  end  of  the  arm  until  the  equi- 
librium is  "restored.     If  some  canes  are  grow- 
ing stronger  than  others,  pinching  the  strong,  if 
done  early,  will  strengthen  the  weak.     If  you 
want  two  canes  on  a  stock  to  grow  of  about  the 
same  length,  and  see  one  heginnmg  to  take  the 
lead  of  the  other,  bend  it  immediately  toward 
a  horizontal  position,  and  place  the  weak  one 
upright.     If  done  at  the  right  moment,  success 


324  American  Gbape  Culture. 

is  quite  certain ;  if  long  neglected,  the  case  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  manage. 

We  may  state  here  that  buds  are  sometimes 
double^  or  even  treble  /  that  is  to  say,  two  and 
three  shoots  will  sometimes  grow  from  the  same 
bud.  As  a  general  rule,  one  of  these  shoots 
must  be  rubbed  off  when  about  an  inch  long, 
leaving  only  one  to  grow.  Sometimes  double 
buds  can  be  advantageously  used  in  forming 
spurs,  or  even  in  extending  the  arms.  In  the 
latter  case,  if  both  the  end  buds  break  double, 
one  shoot  can  be  used  for  the  upright  cane,  and 
the  other  for  the  extension  of  the  arm.  On  the 
whole,  however,  it  is  best  to  follow  the  usual 
course. 

Tying  up  must  not  be  neglected.  The  young 
canes  should  have  their  first  tying  early,  to  pre- 
vent their  accidental  loss.  Till  the  young  canes 
get  to  be  about  a  foot  long,  they  are  easily 
broken  at  the  base,  some  kinds  more  easily  than 
others.  If,  therefore,  a  young  shoot  is  growing 
angularly,  and  needs  to  be  straightened,  or  is 
growing  straight,  and  requires  to  be  bent  to  an 
angle,  it  should  be  done  by  degrees,  or  there  is 
much  danger  of  its  breaking.  In  tying,  the 
string  should  be  loose,  or  only  just  tight  enough 
to  keep  the  cane  in  its  place.     Various  things 


General  Management  of  Arms.        325 

are  used  for  tying,  but,  on  the  whole,  we  have 
found  nothing  better  than  cotton  twine. 

The  fruit,  too,  must  receive  attention.  Re- 
solve at  the  beginning  to  become  one  of  our 
students,  and  grow  only  good  fruit,  iHpe  fruit. 
As  a  general  rule,  no  cane,  in  any  arm  or  spur 
system,  should  carry  more  than  two  bunches. 
If  all  that  set  are  left,  the  vine  is  overtasked, 
and  the  ripening  process  imperfectly  performed ; 
but  if  part  are  removed  early ^  the  ripening  pro- 
cess is  strengthened  rather  than  weakened,  and 
the  goodness  and  ripeness  which  would  have 
been  diffused  and  imperfect  in  four  bunches,  is 
concentrated  and  made  perfect  in  two.  Here 
and  there  a  strong  cane  will  be  an  exception  to 
the  rule,  and  may  carry  three  bunches ;  here 
and  there,  also,  a  weak  one  will  form  another 
exception,  and  should  carry  only  one,  or  even 
none.  The  canes  must  all  be  examined,  and  the 
fruit  adjusted  to  its  capacity. 

The  evil  of  overcropping^  especially  young 
vines,  is  very  great  and  very  common,  and  is 
sometimes  indulged  in  by  persons  who  should 
know  better.  The  vine,  no  matter  how  healthy 
it  may  be  naturally,  is  enfeebled  and  made 
sickly  by  it.  The  vital  force  is  weakened,  and 
is  unable  to  perfect  the  ripening  process ;  the 


326  American  Grape  Culture. 

fruit  is  consequently  imperfect,  and  tlie  vine  it- 
self becomes  a  prey  to  mildew.  When,  there- 
fore, a  person  who  has  enfeebled  vines  a  couple 
of  years  old  by  letting  them  carry  twenty  or 
more  bunches  of  fruit,  says  to  you  that  such 
kinds  "  won't  do  well  with  him,"  you  will  un- 
derstand that  the  fault  lies  in  his  treatment, 
and  not  in  the  vine.  He  has  overdone  the 
thing,  and  the  work  of  his  own  hands  condemns 
him.  The  ill  effects  of  overcrojDping  are  not 
confined  to  the  grape;  they  are  more  or  less 
seen  in  all  kinds  of  fruits.  Let  nothing,  there- 
fore, tempt  you  into  overcropping  your  vines ; 
justice  to  yourself,  to  others,  and  to  the  vines, 
demands  this. 

We  may  as  well  correct  here  a  common  mis- 
apprehension, that  the  largest  wood  is  the  best 
for  fruit.  This  is  not  so  ;  the  best  grapes  are 
produced  on  medium-sized  wood,  round,  short- 
jointed,  and  having  full,  plump  buds  ;  and  the 
second  bud  from  the  base  will  produce  larger 
bunches  than  the  iirst ;  hence  the  advantage  of 
the  double  spur,  in  which  we  use  the  first  bud 
for  wood,  and  the  second  for  finiit. 

A  word  or  two  in  regard  to  the  safety  valves. 
If  there  is  one  to  each  arm  in  the  double  arm 
system,  and  there  never  should  be  more  than 


Geneeal  Manageme^'t  of  Aems.         32t 

one,  their  management  is-  easy.  Many  j^ears 
ago,  in  making  some  experiments,  we  found  that 
a  cane  left  to  grow  lelow  the  bend  in  the  arm 
exercised  considerable  influence  in  equalizing 
action  in  the  arm ;  in  other  words,  we  discov- 
ered a  less  disposition  to  extreme  growth  at  the 
end  of  the  arm,  the  spurs  near  the  stock  being 
about  as  strong  as  those  near  the  end,  and  in 
some  cases  even  stronger.  This,  with  us,  was 
the  origin  of  the  safety  valve.  We  were  not 
then  as  familiar  with  the  effects  of  pinching  as 
we  have  learned  to  be  in  later  years,  and  used 
to  bend  the  safety  valve  down  to  a  greater  or 
less  angle,  as  we  wished  to  modify  action  in  the 
arm.  Pinching  or  bending  the  safety  valve,  or 
both,  will  give  us  a  very  considerable  control 
over  action  in  the  arm,  if  recourse  is  had  to 
them  at  the  right  time.  This  is  the  general 
principle  which  governs  the  safety  valve,  and 
the  reader  will  be  able  to  apply  it  for  himself. 

The  upright  canes  in  the  Guyot  plan  should 
be  used  in  the  same  way,  though  we  used  the 
safety  valve  years  before  we  heard  of  Guyot. 
We  may  remark  here,  that  to  obtain  the  full 
benefit  of  the  upright  canes,  the  spur  fi'om 
which  they  are  grown  should  be  helow  the  bend 
in  the  arm,  and  not,  as  in  the  Guyot  proper, 


328  American  Grape  Culture. 

above  it.  This  is  readily  done  by  making  tlie 
arm  from  the  upper  cane.  In  this  system,  we 
have  found  that  two  canes  are  as  many  as  should 
be  used.  If  more  are  used,  the  action  is  diverted 
too  strongly  from  the  arm.  A  friend,  who  grows 
a  part  of  his  vineyard  on  the  Guyot  plan,  meet- 
ing with  the  same  difficulty,  we  advised  him  to 
lay  down  one  of  the  canes  at  right  angles  with 
the  permanent  arm,  and  let  it  carry  a  little  more 
fruit.  This  he  has  done  for  four  years  past  with 
satisfactory  results,  thus  combining  the  renewal 
and  the  permanent  arm.  This  would  be  a  good 
plan  to  follow  in  some  eases,  while  the  vines  are 
young.  The  rule  should  be,  not  to  have  more 
than  two  safety  valves.  If  more  action  is 
needed  in  the  arm,  the  uprights  must  be 
pinched ;  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  they  must 
be  bent  to  an  angle,  but  restored  again  if  ac- 
tion becomes  too  great  at  the  end  of  the  arm. 

In  conclusion,  a  general  supervision  should 
be  exercised,  to  see  that  every  thing  is  done  at 
the  right  time  and  in  the  right  manner.  Such 
supervision  should  never  be  intrusted  to  negli- 
gent or  incompetent  hands. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


STAKES    AND    TRELLISES. 


Trellises. — ^This  is  a  subject  of  no  little  im- 
portance, not  alone  because  it  is  a  necessity, 
but  also  because  of  its  considerable  cost,  what- 
ever form  it  may  take.  Various  forms  have 
been  proposed  and  used,  few  of  which  need  be 
noticed  here,  since  they  are  mostly  wanting  in 
either  dm-ability  or  convenience.  Something 
"  cheap  "  seems  to  have  been  the  leading  idea 
in  most  of  the  contrivances  that  have  been  sug- 
gested ;  that  is  very  desirable  in  itself,  but  it  is 
not  all.  What  is  wanted  is,  not  something 
that  is  cheap  as  a  part,  but  something  that  is 
cheap  as  a  whole.  We  have  seen  some  con- 
trivances in  this  way  that  "  ate  themselves  up" 
in  less  than  ten  years,  and  a  good  trellis  be- 
sides. 

Where  stakes  alone  are  used,  there  is  nothing 
so  good  and  durable  as  red  cedar  and  yellow 


330 


American  Gkape  Culture. 


locust.  The  cliestnut  is  next  in  value;  the 
oak,  also,  is  tolerably  lasting.  The  bark  should 
in  all  cases  be  removed  from,  the  portion  put  in 
the  ground,  since,  in  decaying,  it  produces  va- 
rious forms  of  fungi,  some  at  least  of  which 
are  hurtful  to  the  vine. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  trellis  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  126.     If  made  entii-ely  of  cedar, 


Fig.  126. 


it  will  be  quite  durable;  and  by  putting  it 
carefully  and  neatly  together,  it  can  be  made 
to  assume  a  considerable  degree  of  rustic 
beauty.  If  cedar  is  not  plenty,  common  "  hoop 
poles  "  may  be  used  for  the  horizontal  pieces. 
If  cedar  or  locust  is  not  used  for  the  posts,  it 
soon  goes  to  pieces.  When  made  altogether  of 
cedar,  it  is  one  of  the  best  fomis  of  wooden 
trellis  that  can  be  used.  If  the  system  of 
training  should  make  it  desirable,  the  poles  can 


Stakes  and  Trellises. 


331 


be  placed  vertically  instead  of  horizontally  ;  in 
wliicli  case  none  but  tbe  top  and  bottom  hor- 
izontal j)oles  will  be  needed.     This  trellis  can 


Fig.  127. 


be  made  of  any  height  desired.  The  ends  of 
the  posts  should  be  cut  off  about  three  inches 
above  the  top  piece. 


n   n 


Fig.  128. 


Another  kind  of  wooden  trellis  is  shown  in 


332 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Fig.  127.  In  this  tlie  strips  are  -upright,  and  the 
posts  quite  stout.  The  construction  is  so  sim- 
ple as  to  be  easily  understood  from  the  en- 
graving. This  kind  of  trellis  will  suit  the 
"fan"  form  of  training,  {Fig.  88,  p.  153,)  or 
any  other  in  which  the  canes  cross  the  uprights 
angularly.  If  used  for  horizontal  arms,  like 
Fig.  128,  (which  is   an,  example   of  reversed 


Fig.  129. 


arms,)  it  is  exceedingly  inconvenient,  as  the  up- 
rights seldom  come  where  they  are  wanted. 
In  this  instance,  however,  the  stock  is  to  be 
carried  higher,  as  shown  in  Fig.  129,  which  is  a 


Stakes  and  Trellises. 


333 


334  American  Grape  Culture. 

part  of  the  very  extended  and  complicated  sys- 
tem of  Bronner. 

But  the  best  of  all  trellises  for  the  vineyard 
is  that  made  of  wire  supported  by  cedar  or  lo- 
cust posts.  Its  first  cost  is  greater  than  most 
other  kinds,  but  it  is  cheaper  in  the  end. 
When  well  made,  it  is  not  only  of  great  dura- 
bility, but  it  is  always  in  order  and  always 
ready  for  use.  Fig.  130  is  a  trellis  of  this  kind. 
It  was  made  for  growing  several  tiers  of  arms 
on,  like  the  Thomery,  and  is  consequently 
much  higher  than  is  needed  for  vineyard  use. 

A  trellis  should  be  firm,  the  posts  securely 
set  in  the  ground,  the  wares  made  so  tight  as 
not  to  sway  in  the  wind,  and  with  the  means 
of  being  loosened  in  winter.  We  will  explain 
how  this  may  be  done.  A  hole  should  be  dug 
about  four  feet  deep,  and  in  connection  with  it, 
and  in  a  line  with  the  trellis,  a  trench  of  the 
same  depth,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  long.  A  cedar 
of  this  length,  and  of  considerable  stoutness, 
should  have  a  hole  or  socket  at  one  end  for 
the  end  of  the  post  to  rest  in  securely,  and  the 
other  end  notched  for  a  brace,  which  should 
also  be  of  cedar  or  locust.  The  manner  of  fix- 
ing the  post  in  the  ground  will  be  made  plain 
enough  by  an  examination  of  Fig.  1 31,  in  which 


Stakes  and  Trellises. 


335 


the  fine  line  denotes  the  ground  level.  It  will 
be  seen  that  this  arrangement  fixes  the  post  im- 
movably in  its  place.  All  the  end  posts  are  to 
be  fixed  in  this  way.  If  the  trellis'  is  long, 
smaller  posts  must  be  put  in  at  intervals,  but 


in-  vii. 


sufficiently  close  to  give  proper  support  to  the 
wire,  which  will  l)e  twelve,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
feet  apart,  according  to  circumstances  and  the 
wei2:ht  of  the  wire. 


336 


American  Grape  Culture. 


Some  good  mode  of  tightening  the  wires  has 
always  been  a  desideratum ;  indeed,  the  trouble 
and  vexation  of  doing  this  has  deterred  some 
from  using  a  wire  trellis.  There  are  two  or 
three  plans  that  will  accomplish  the  purpose ; 
but  we  are  enabled  to  present  one  so  simple  and 
effectual  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  describe 
any  other.  It  consists  only  of  an  iron  pin  with 
a  square  head,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  132.     It 


Fig.  132. 


should  be  about  six  inches  long  and  half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  or  about  the  size  of  a  common  bed 
screw.  About  two  inches  from  the  end  it  should 
have  a  small  hole  pierced  through  it  for  holding 
the  end  of  the  wire.  It  can  be  readily  and 
cheaply  made  by  any  blacksmith.  The  pin  is 
driven  into  the  post  about  half  its  length,  as 
shown  at  B,  which  is  a  section  of  the  post. 
The  pin  being  driven  into  the  post,  the  wire 


Stakes  and  Trellises.  337 

must  be  drawn  as  tight  as  it  can  be  by  hand, 
the  end  passed  through  the  small  hole,  and  the 
pin  twined  a  few  times  around.  If  a  bed  wi'ench, 
or  any  of  the  wrenches  in  common  use,  be  put 
on  the  square  head  of  the  pin  and  turned,  the 
wire  can  be  made  literally  as  "  tight  as  a  fiddle 
string."  This  is  a  simple  and  effective  contriv- 
ance within  the  reach  of  all.  If  the  end  posts 
are  not  pretty  stout,  the  top  wires  should  be 
tightened  first,  and  it  would  be  better  to  do  so 
in  all  cases.  Turning  the  pin  in  reversed  order 
will  loosen  the  wire  as  much  as  may  be  desired 
in  winter. 

Fig.  133  is  the  form  of  trellis  which  should  be 
used  for  the  Guyot  plan  of  training.  The  small 
posts  that  extend  above  the  wires  are  for  tying 
the  long  canes  or  safety  valves  to,  a  vine  being 
planted  at  each  post. 

Fig.  134  is  the  proper  foim  of  trellis  for 
double  horizontal  arms.  If  two  tiers  of  arms  are 
grown,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  the  trellis 
higher. 

There  are  other  forms  of  trellis,  but  they  are 
so  much  less  desirable  than  those  just  given, 
that  it  seems  hardly  worth  while  to  illustrate 
them. 

In  regard  to  wire,  it  is  now  used  of  much  less 

22 


338 


American  Geape  Culture. 


Stakes  and  Trellises.  339 

size  tlian  was  common  some  years  ago.  The 
numbers  most  frequently  used  now  are  from  ten 
to  fourteen.  It  should  either  be  annealed  or  oral- 
vanized,  the  last  being  the  best,  but  costing 
about  double.  There  are  two  kinds  of  wire, 
hard  coal  and  charcoal.  The  former  is  very 
brittle,  and  ^vears  away  pretty  fast  by  oxyda- 
tion,  and  is  therefore  not  the  best  for  the  vine- 
yard. Charcoal  wire  is  tough,  pliant,  and  dur- 
able, and  is  the  kind  that  should  be  used.  We 
have  found  No.  14  of  this  wire  abundantly 
strong. 

If  posts  other  than  cedar  or  yellow  locust  are 
used,  the  portion  put  in  the  ground  should  be 
covered  with  coal  tar,  or,  better  still,  plastic  slate. 
Both  should  be  applied  when  the  posts  are  dry, 
and  the  coal  tar  will  be  more  effectual  if  warmed 
before  it  is  put  on.  The  plastic  slate  is  mixed 
with  coal  tar,  and  applied  with  a  whitewash 
brush. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

CULTIVATION WINTER    MANAGEMENT MAEKET- 

INQ GROWING  PLANTS    BETWEEN  THE  ROWS 

HOW  TO    KEEP   GRAPES   IN    WINTER SHELTER 

FOR    PROTECTION    AND    RIPENING MANURES 

NON-MANURING. 

Cultivation. — The  object  of  cultivation  may 
be  considered  as  two-fold :  the  intermingling 
and  ameliorating  of  the  soil  in  such  a  thorough 
manner  as  to  make  it  a  fit  "  house  of  entertain- 
ment "  for  plant  food ;  and  keeping  the  surface 
mellow  and  clean,  so  as  to  maintain  a  healthy 
root  action  ;  the  two  comprehending  tillage, 
which  has  in  view  the  health  of  the  vine,  and 
the  ripening  and  excellence  of  the  fruit.  The 
first  point  is  best  accomplished  by  fall  plowing, 
which  may  be  repeated  in  a  very  stiff  new  soil, 
so  as  to  more  thoroughly  break  it  up  and  inter- 
mingle it,  and  expose  all  its  parts  to  the  action  of 
the  air,  and  the  ameliorating  influence  of  winter. 
The  second  is  accomplished  by  plowing  again 


Cultivation.  341 

in  tbie  spring,  and  tlie  proper  use  of  weeders  and 
cultivators  during  the  growing  season.  The 
plowing  should  not  at  any  time  be  so  deep  as  to 
cut  the  large  or  primary  roots.  The  small  hairy 
or  fibrous  roots  near  the  surface  may  be  plowed 
at  the  end  of  the  season  mthout  injury. 

It  will  give  the  reader  a  clearer  idea  of  this 
part  of  the  subject  if  we  repeat  a  part  of  what 
has  elsewhere  been  said.  We  have  noted  the 
importance  of  having  the  primary  roots  pro- 
ceed from  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and  of  having 
the  crown  at  a  suitable  distance  beneath  the 
surface,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in 
which  it  is  planted.  If  another  system  of  pri- 
mary roots  is  allowed  to  establish  itself  above 
the  first,  and  take  possession  of  the  soil  near 
the  surface,  it  will,  by  degrees,  if  left  to  it- 
self, appropriate  the  chief  part  of  the  root 
action,  and  to  that  extent  weaken  the  lower 
system,  if  not  ultimately  destroy  it;  besides, 
cultivation  is  seriously  interfered  with,  and 
the  vine  made  liable  to  suffer  from  drought. 
Now,  the  young  vine  has  a  strong  disposition  to 
emit  primary  roots  from  the  stock  very  near  the 
surface.  These,  therefore,  should  be  removed 
when  they  first  appear,  and  not  left  to  attain 
size.     It   is  just   here  that  a  mistake  is  often 


342  American  Grape  Culture. 

made,  in  allowing  the  disposition  to  become  es- 
tablished, and  then  a  good  deal  of  time  and  labor 
must  be  wasted  in  trying  to  correct  it.  It  is  an 
accepted  rule,  that  it  is  best  to  break  bad  habits 
in  childhood,  since  it  is  then  easiest  done.  If, 
vv^hen  weeding  with  the  hoe,  the  soil  be  drawn 
from  around  the  stock  a  few  inches  deep,  it  can 
readily  be  seen  whether  such  roots  have  formed 
or  are  about  forming,  and  it  is  a  very  easy  matter 
to  remove  them.  It  takes  but  a  moment,  and 
is  a  very  much  better  plan  than  to  leave  them 
till  they  get  large  and  in  the  way.  By  persever- 
ing, for  a  while,  in  removing  the  roots  as  they 
appear,  the  disposition  to  make  them  will  be 
overcome,  and  will  be  assisted  by  the  increasing 
age  of  the  plant.  The  object,  then,  should  be 
to  keep  the  stock  free  from  roots  for  a  few  inches 
beneath  the  surface;  thorough  cultivation,  in- 
deed, up  to  the  stock  of  the  plant,  would  almost 
regulate  this  matter  of  itself 

Let  the  novice  remember  that  the  primary 
roots  must  not  be  cut  and  drao-ored  to  the  sur- 
face,  and  we  will  proceed  to  describe  two  kinds 
of  plowing,  the  application  of  -which  he  will  now 
readily  understand.  As  plowing  can  not  well 
be  done  till  the  vines  are  pruned,  this  should  be 
done  soon  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf     Of  the  two 


Cultivation.  343 

kinds  of  plowing  alluded  to,  one  consists  in  be- 
ginning next  the  vines  and  turning  the  furrovr 
slice  to  the  vines,  which  may  be  called  apploio- 
ing,  or  plowing  to  the  vines ;  the  other  consists 
in  beginning  in  the  middle  of  the  row,  and 
turning  the  furrow  slice  from  the  vines,  which 
may  be  called  deplowing,  or  plowing  from  the 
vines.  In  deplowing,  the  dead  furrow  is  left; 
next  the  vines ;  in  applowing,  it  is  in  the  middle 
of  the  row.  When  this  dead  furrow  is  needed 
to  carry  off  surface  water,  it  should  be  finished 
by  hand  with  the  hoe.  The  reader  will  get  a 
tolerably  good  idea  of  deplowing  by  examining 
Fig.  40,  p.  93,  in  which,  however,  there  are 
only  two  furrow  slices,  in  consequence  of  the 
vines  being  planted  close  together.  The  num- 
ber of  slices  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  width 
of  the  rows. 

In  plowing,  much  time  and  many  steps  will 
be  saved  by  beginning  and  turning  at  the  right 
place.  It  will  assist  the  beginner  if  we  give  an 
illustration,  by  taking  the  space  between  two 
rows  of  vines  running  east  and  west,  and  divid- 
ing this  space  by  an  imaginary  line  through  the 
middle,  calling  the  space  on  the  north  the  upper 
side,  and  the  space  on  the  south  the  lower  side. 
We  will  describe  the  operation  of  applowing^  or 


344  American  Grape  Culture. 

plowing  to  the  vines,  whicli  will  leave  the  dead 
furrow  in  the  middle,  or  where  the  imaginary 
line  is.  Beginning  on  the  upper  side,  enter  the 
plow  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and  throw  a 
furrow  slice  to  the  vines.  When  the  end  of  the 
row  is  reached,  turn  to  the  lower  side,  enter  the 
plow  as  before,  and  turn  a  slice  to  the  -vines; 
after  which,  go  to  the  upper  side  again,  and 
turn  a  slice  into  the  furrow  first  opened ;  then 
to  the  lower  side,  and  turn  a  slice  into  the  open 
furrow  there ;  then  again  to  the  upper  side,  and 
so  repeat  till  the  space  between  the  rows  is  all 
plowed.  The  dead  fun*ow  will  be  through  the 
middle.  Deplowing,  or  plowing /rom  the  vines, 
consists  in  beginning  at  the  middle  or  the  dead 
fuiTow,  and  reversing  these  furrow  slices,  which 
fills  the  dead  furrow,  and  finishes  by  leaving  the 
ground  as  it  was  at  the  beginning.  Having 
explained  and  illustrated  the  meaning  of  ap- 
plowing  and  deplowing,  we  shall  now  be  able 
to  apply  these  terms  without  further  circumlo- 
cution. We  may  remark  here,  that  plowing 
should  never  be  done  when  the  soil  is  wet. 

Soils  that  are  new,  heavy,  or  stiff  are  specially 
benefited  by  fall  plowing,  which  mellows  them, 
makes  them  easier  to  work,  and  better  fitted  for 
sustaining  the  vines.     For  such  soils  proceed  as 


Cultivation.  345 

follows :  Early  in  November,  the  vines  having 
been  first  pruned,  deplow,  and  harrow  well  with 
a  coulter  harrow  or  a  cultivator.  In  from  one 
to  two  weeks,  applow  and  harrow.  The  vines 
are  now  to  be  laid  down,  and  covered  by  ap- 
plowing,  and  the  dead  furrow,  where  necessary 
to  carry  off  water,  cleaned  out  with  a  hoe,  re- 
moving the  "  balk"  or  little  ridge  left  by  the 
plow.  This  may  seem  like  a  good  deal  of  labor, 
but  for  new  or  stiff  soils  the  advantages  are 
sufficiently  great  to  warrant  the  labor. 

For  ordinary  mellow  soils,  the  following  is 
the  proper  course :  The  vines  having  been 
pruned  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall,  are  laid  down, 
covered  by  applowing,  and  the  ground  har- 
rowed. The  dead  fuiTOW  through  the  middle 
of  the  row  is  then  put  in  condition  for  carrying 
off  water,  and  the  vineyard  is  prepared  for  its 
winter  rest ;  in  some  sense,  it  may  be  said  to 
have  been  put  to  bed  and  blanketed.  In  the 
spring,  deplowing  will  fill  up  the  dead  furrow 
and  uncover  the  vines,  which  should  at  once  be 
tied  to  the  wires  to  prevent  loss  by  accident. 
The  ground  should  then  be  thoroughly  har- 
rowed. If  the  common  harrow  is  used,  the 
ground  beneath  the  surface  is  packed ;  but  with 
the  coulter  harrow  or  a  cultivator  it  is  not  only 


346  Ameeican  Geape  Cultuee. 

broken  np,  but  left  porous.  The  cultivator  or 
the  coulter  harrow  should,  therefore,  be  used  in 
the  vineyard  instead  of  the  spike  harrow. 

The  operation  that  has  just  been  described 
combines  so  admirably  the  advantages  of  winter 
covering  and  fall  plowing,  that  it  ought  to  be 
universally  adopted.  The  primary  roots  are 
not  cut  and  dragged  to  the  surface,  as  they  often 
are,  even  within  a  foot  of  the  stock ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are  not  only  not  damaged  in  this 
way,  but  an  additional  covering  is  placed  over 
them.  The  ground  is  mellowed  and  aerated, 
and  when  reversed  in  the  sj^ring  by  deplowing, 
is  charged  with  ammonia  and  other  gases,  as 
well  as  the  liquid  manure  absorbed  from  the  top 
dressing,  all  of  which  are  placed  within  reach 
of  the  mouths  of  the  plant  ready  for  appropri- 
ation, and  the  new  growth  starts  with  a  healthy 
vigor  which  it  will  maintain  throughout  the 
season,  unless  checked  by  unusual  atmospheric 
conditions.  These  are  great  and  substantial  ad- 
vantages, which  should  not  be  lightly  esteemed. 
Those,  however,  who  plow  in  the  fall  very  much 
as  if  the  vine  were  not  a  thing  of  life,  and  sen- 
sitive to  the  mangling  of  its  vital  parts,  should 
leave  nature  to  take  care  of  the  roots  during  the 
winter.     When   the   vine  is   young  and  lusty 


Cultivation. 


347 


witli  vigor,  it  may  not  harm  it  mncli  to  clieck 
it  in  tliis  way ;  but  tlie  practice  can  not  be  per- 
sisted in  without  damage. 

When  the  plowing  is  done,  there  will  be  a 
narrow  slip  along  the  vines  which  has  not  been 
moved  by  the  plow.  This  must  be  thoroughly 
broken  up  with  either  the  pronged  hoe  (some- 
times called  a  potato  hook)  or  the  pronged 
spade ;  and  which  is  best  we  have  found  to  de- 
pend a  good  deal  upon  the  countryman  that 
uses  them.  In  stiff  or  stony  soils,  a  stout  dou- 
ble pronged  hoe,  like  Fig.  135,  is  used.     This 


Fig.  135. 


instrument  is  also  used  for  working  the  soil  on 
steep  hill-sides,  where  the  plow  can  not  be  run. 
It  is  in  common  use  by  nurserymen,  and  is  a 
very  good  implement  to  have  at  hand  for  various 
purposes.  In  deplowing  in  the  fall,  the  un- 
moved  strip  along  the  vines  must  l)e  moved  by 
hand  at  the  time  of  plowing,  so  as  to  leave  \\^Q 
stock  of  the  vines  in  the  open  furrow. 


348  American  Grape  Culture. 

After  the  ground  is  plowed  and  harrowed, 
there  is  one  object  which  must  be  kept  steadily 
in  view,  and  that  is,  to  keep  the  soil  mellow 
and  free  from  weeds.  For  weeding,  we  have 
used  nothing  so  good  as  the  improved  horse- 
hoe,  made  of  steel,  and  fitted  with  an  adjusta- 
ble wheel  and  clevis.  It  can  be  expanded  from 
.  one  to  three  feet  wide,  and  has  diiferent  sets  of 
teeth,  one  for  cutting  weeds  and  stirring  the 
soil,  another  for  turning  one  or  two  light  furrow 
slices,  and  so  on.  With  a  single  horse  it  may  be 
run  from  one  to  three  inches  deep.  With  this 
implement  the  soil  may  be  easily  kept  clean  and 
mellow.  The  reader,  however,  should  try  va- 
rious implements  as  they  come  into  use,  and  re- 
tain those  which  are  best  adapted  to  the  pm-- 
pose.  Implements  are  not  yet  perfect.  The 
time  to  weed  is  just  as  soo7i  and  as  often  as  the 
weeds  can  be  seen,  or  just  as  they  are  leaving 
the  seed  leaf.  The  labor  is  then  comparatively 
light  and  easy,  but  it  becomes  very  hard  work 
when  the  weeds  get  large  enough  to  dispute  the 
ground  with  you.  It  is  also  desirable  to  stir 
the  ground  as  soon  after  heavy  rains  as  it  be- 
comes dry  enough  to  work. 

The  slip  along  the  vines  not  stirred  by  the 
horse  hoe  must  be  weeded  by  hand.     When  the 


Cultivation  349 

soil  is  light  and  mellow,  and  not  stony,  tlie 
pushing  hoe  will  be  found  more  convenient  than 
the  draw  hoe  ;  but  better  than  either,  and  com- 
bining the  advantages  of  both,  is  a  recently  in- 
troduced triangular  hoe  with  a  double  cutting 
edge,  being  an  easy  tool  to  handle,  and  very 
thorough  in  its  work.  It  is  one  of  the  few  hor- 
ticultural implements  in  which  the  true  princi- 
ple of  cutting  is  introduced  ;  in  other  words^  it 
makes  an  angular  instead  of  a  square  cut.  All 
square  cutting  weeders  are  imperfect,  and  in- 
ventors should  bear  this  in  mind.     After  mid 


Fig.  136. 

season,  the  skim  teeth  should  be  used  on  the 
horse  hoe.  In  general  terms,  begin  the  season 
by  running  the  hoe  two  or  three  inches  deep, 
and  gradually  lessen  the  depth,  till  at  last  only 
the  surface  is  stirred.  The  novice  will  soon 
learn  to  adapt  his  implements  to  the  purpose. 
We  introduce  Figs.  136, 137,  138,  139,  as  ex- 


350 


American  Grape  Culture. 


amples  of  implements  in  use  among  tbe  Freneli. 
We  Lave  never  used  them,  but  tLey  have  the 
appearance  of  being  good  of  their  kind.     Some 


"^«!«i.v  '<i- 


Tig.  137. 


reader  may  take  a  fancy  to  some  of  them,  and 
have  them  made  for  trial.  They  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  implements  already  in  use 
among  us,  which  can  doubtless  be  improved. 
We  have  several  times  imj^o^'ted  foreign  imple- 


ments, but  never  found  them  to  excel  our  own, 
except  in  clumsiness  and  weight ;  and  it  would. 


Winter  Management.  351 

therefore,  be  better  to  Lave  tliem  made  here 
rather  than  import  them.  Fig.  130  is  a  plow. 
Fig.  137  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  plow, 
turning  two  small  furrow  slices.  Fig.  138  is  a 
cultivator,  or  weeder.  Fig.  139  is 
a  triangular  hoe,  used  for  the  same 
purpose  Si^  Fig.  135,  above. 

Winter  Management.  —  There 
are  some  matters  connected  with 
the  winter  care  of  the  vineyard 
which  are  too  important  to  be 
overlooked,  chief  among  which  is 
covering.  This,  in  some  portions 
of  the  country,  is  a  necessity,  and 
Fi- 139.  in  most  others  an  advantage  suffi- 
ciently great  to  warrant  the  trouble.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  protect  the  buds  and  wood  as  well  as 
the  roots  from  being  injured  or  killed  by  the 
severity  or  changes  of  the  winter.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  some  that  covering  the  vines  causes 
them  to  start  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  in  that 
respect  is  an  advantage ;  but  early  starting  is  no 
advantage,  and  covering  has  no  such  effect ;  on 
the  contrary,  it  retards  the  spring  growth,  and 
that  is  a  real  advantage.  Others  suppose  that 
covering  "makes  the  crop  finer;"  but  it  can 
have  no  effect  in  making  it  finer :  it  can  only 


352 


American  Grape  Culture. 


preserve  what  is  already  there.  Its  effect  is  sim- 
ply preservative,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  very 
important. 

There  are  several  modes  of  covering  the  vine ; 
some  use  the  spade  and  others  the  plow  for 
throwing  earth  over  the  vines,  while  still  others 
cover  with  brush.  There  has  been  a  supposed 
difficulty  in  bending  the  stock  of  the  vine,  and 
several  methods  are  used  for  overcoming  it. 


Fig.  140.  Fig.  141. 

One  plan  is  to  set  the  trellis  from  six  inches  to 
a  foot  in  front  of  the  vines,  and  bring  the 
stock  up  to  the  wire  at  an  angle.  In  this  way 
the  stock  is  very  easily  bent  to  the  ground. 
Another  method  is  to  plant  the  vines  as  usual, 
start  the  arms  near  the  surface,  and  carry  them 


Winter  Management.  353 

to  tlie  wire  at  about  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 
grees before  bending  tlaem  horizontally.     This 
is  the  plan  of  Dr.  May,  shown  in  Fig.  87,  p.  152. 
Where  only  a  few  vines  are  grown,  they  are 
pegged   down    and    covered   with   the    spade. 
Vines  that  are  grown  against  walls  and  build- 
ings receive  from  these  generally  as  much  pro- 
tection as  they  need ;  but  if  more  is  thought  to 
be  necessary,  as  may  sometimes  be  the  case, 
they  can  be  bent  down  and  covered  with  earth 
or  brush.     For  this  purpose  nothing  is  better 
than  branches  of  hemlock  or  cedar.     The  vines 
are  sometimes  bedded  in  straw,  which  affords  a 
good  'protection ;  but  there  is  this  objection  to 
it,  that  it  harbors  mice,  which  often  destroy  the 
vines.     Manure   litter  is  objectionable  for  the 
same  reason.     If  it  should  not  be  desirable  or 
convenient  to  lay  the  vines  down,  they  may  be 
protected  by  laying  straw  mats  against  them 
on  the  trellis.     Buildings  and  walls,  however, 
present  such  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth 
of  the  vine,  that  the  wood  becomes  thoroughly 
ripe  and  hardy,  and  hence,  as  a  general  rule, 
needs  no  further  protection  than  these  afford. 

Figs.  140  and  141  show  a  good  plan  of  pre- 
paring the  vines  for  covering,  in  which  each 
alternate  vine  is  placed  just  beneath  the  sur- 

23 


354  American  Grape  Culture. 

face,  as  seen  at  a  in  Fig.  140,  and  the  others  on 
the  surface',  as  seen  in  Fig.  141.  All  modes  of 
covering  are  defective  which  expose  the  roots, 
or  leave  the  ground  in  such  condition  as  to 
favor  the  accumulation  of  water  in  any  degree 
whatever.  After  the  vines  are  laid  down,  they 
should  be  covered  by  applowing,  or  plowino-  to 
the  vines,  as  explained  under  "  CuUivationy  In 
this  way,  the  roots  as  well  as  the  toj^s  are 
covered  and  protected,  and  fall  plowing  thus 
becomes  an  advantage  instead  of  an  evil,  as  it 
is  when  done  in  the  usual  way.  In  the  sprino-, 
the  vines  are  uncovered  by  deplowing,  or  throw- 
ing the  furrow  slices  from  the  vines,  as  also  ex- 
plained under  ^^  Cult lvatio?iy  In  this  way  spring 
plowing  and  uncovering  the  vines  become  one 
and  the  same  operation,  and  much  time  is 
saved. 

In  the  common  method  the  stock  is  bent 
down  toward  the  middle  of  the  row,  covered 
with  the  plow,  and  the  finishing  done  by  hand 
with  the  hoe.  When  the  vines  are  bent  down, 
they  must  either  be  pegged,  or  enough  earth 
thrown  on  the  stock  to  keep  it  down.  The 
covering  of  soil  need  not  be  more  than  two 
or  three  inches  thick.  Wliere  cedar  or  hem- 
lock is  abundant,  the  vines   may  be   pegged 


Winter  Management.  355 

down  and  covered  witli  bmsh.  It  is  better  to 
place  the  vines  so  as  to  be  covered  with  snow 
than  not  to  cover  them  at  all. 

In  localities  subject  to  late  frosts,  the  vines 
should  be  left  covered  as  long  as  possible,  which 
generally  has  the  effect  of  retarding  the  growth, 
and  thus  secures  a  degree  of  immunity  fi'om  in- 
jury from  this  cause ;  besides,  if  not  started  till 
the  weather  becomes  settled,  an  unchecked 
growth  is  made,  which  is  in  all  respects  a  great 
benefit  to  the  vine.  Care  must  be  taken,  how- 
ever, not  to  leave  them  down  too  long.  When 
taken  up,  they  should  at  once  be  tied  to  the 
stake  or  wire,  as  the  case  may  be,  taking  every 
precaution  not  to  injure  the  buds. 

There  is  a  prevalent  cause  of  "  winter  kill- 
ing," especially  in  young  vines,  which  seems  not 
to  be  generally  understood.  We  refer  to  stand- 
ins:  water.  This  should  not  be  allowed  in  the 
vineyard  at  any  time.  The  water  that  accumu- 
lates around  the  stock  in  little  pools  is  a  source 
of  much  injury,  both  in  summer  and  winter. 
Where  applowing  is  not  done  in  the  fall  to 
cover  the  vines,  or  where  brush  is  used  as  a 
covering,  a  man  should  go  through  the  vine- 
yard with  a  hoe  before  the  ground  freezes,  and 
round  the  earth  up  against  the  stock  of  every 


356  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

vine  that  lias  a  depression  around  it  where 
water  can  settle. 

The  trellis  wires  should  be  moderately- 
loosened  in  winter.  The  bark  of  the  posts 
affords  a  convenient  harbor  for  insects;  this 
might,  therefore,  be  stripped  off  in  winter,  and 
the  cracks  and  crevices  filled  with  soap  or  coal 
tar.  A  general  supervision  of  the  vineyard  is 
almost  as  necessary  in  the  winter  as  in  the 
summer. 

Marlceting. — Those  who  grow  grapes  for 
profit  as  well  as  pleasure  will  appreciate  this 
part  of  the  subject.  The  object  here  is. to  get 
the  fruit  to  market  in  such  form  and  condition 
as  to  realize  the  highest  price.  Ripeness  is  the 
first  consideration.  It  is  unnecessary  to  repeat 
here  what  we  have  elsewhere  said  on  this  sub- 
ject. The  graj)es  should  be  well  ripened  before 
beinaj  2:athered.  Baskets  and  boxes  are  used 
for  receiving  the  bunches  as  they  are  gathered, 
the  ordinary  bushel  basket  being  in  common 
use  in  some  places,  but  a  shallow  basket  is 
much  better.  The  bunches  should  be  cut  with 
scissors,  and  handled  so  carefully  as  not  to  rub 
off*  the  bloom.  The  best  scissors  for  the  pur- 
pose are  those  which  hold  the  bunch  when  cut, 
called  grape-gathering  scissors 


Maeketing.  357 

When  gathered,  tliey  should  be  carried  to 
the  packing-house,  or  some  other  suitable  place 
under  cover,  where  they  are  to  be  prepared  and 
assorted  for  market.  There  should  be  a  smooth, 
clean  table  in  the  room,  on  which  the  bunches 
should  be  carefully  laid  as  they  are  prepared. 
The  packer  can  then  assort  them  without  un- 
necessary handling,  which  destroys  the  bloom. 
Having  the  bunches  in  full  view,  he  is  enabled 
to  take  up  the  best,  or  the  second  best,  as  may 
suit  his  purpose,  and  they  are  at  once  packed  in 
boxes  without  handling  again. 

The  preparation  is  done  as  follows :  Being 
provided  with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scissors, 
called  grape  scissors,  each  bunch  is  taken  up 
carefully  by  the  foot-stalk,  and  all  the  unripe, 
imperfect,  and  bruised  berries  cut  out.  As  this 
is  done,  the  bunches  are  laid  on  the  table,  and 
the  packer  takes  charge  of  them.  They  should 
be  assorted  into  at  least  two  qualities,  the  first 
comprising  the  largest  an^  finest  bunches.  Par- 
ties can  always  be  found  who  will  take  such 
grapes  at  an  advance  that  will  pay  handsomely 
for  the  additional  labor.  This  is  one  of  the 
chief  secrets  of  success  in  fruit-growdng.  As 
soon  as  it  becomes  known  that  your  best  and 
ripest  grapes  are  put  up  fairly  and  lionestly,  a 


358  American  Grape  Culture. 

demand  will  be  created  for  them ;  they  will  be 
sought  after,  and  not  have  to  go  begging  for 
customers.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  novice 
to  establish  such  a  reputation  from  the  start. 
It  is  only  too  common  a  practice  to  pack  the 
bunches  as  they  come,  with  a  few  good  ones  on 
the  top  as  a  decoy :  a  species  of  deception  which 
is  sure  to  be  discovered  sooner  or  later,  and  fol- 
lowed by  its  appropriate  reward. 

There  will  be  some  bunches  too  small  and 
others  too  loose  for  market,  besides  "  odds  and 
ends."  The  small  and  loose  bunches  can  be 
sold  for  a  less  price,  or  kept  for  home  consump- 
tion, or,  if  the  variety  is  a  wine  grape,  those 
that  are  tliwoughly  ripe  can  be  made  into  wine ; 
otherwise  they  can  be  put  with  the  "  odds  and 
ends,"  and  made  into  vinegar,  which  always 
commands  a  good  price.  There  need  be  noth- 
ing lost.  We  hope,  however,  that  no  reader  of 
this  book  will  attempt  to  make  wine  from  un- 
ripe or  imperfect  grapes. 

Boxes  and  haskets  of  various  forms  and  sizes 
are  used  for  marketing.  If  baskets  are  used, 
they  should  be  strong,  and  have  wooden  covers, 
provided  with  lock  and  key.  Wooden  boxes 
are  much  to  be  preferred  to  baskets.  There  are 
several  in  use  which,  answer  the  purpose  well. 


Maeketing.  359 

Small  boxes  packed  in  crates,  however,  are  the 
most  convenient  for  marketing  grapes.  The 
best  that  we  have  seen  are  those  used  by  Mr. 
Wagener.  The  crate  is  eighteen  and  a  half 
inches  long,  nine  and  a  quarter  wide,  and  eight 
and  five  eighths  deep.  The  ends  are  made  of 
inch  board ;  the  two  sides  are  formed  of  three 
laths  one  inch  and  a  half  wide,  one  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  and  one  in  the  middle ;  and 
the  top  and  bottom  are  formed  of  two  laths, 
dividing  each  into  three  equal  spaces.  A  nar- 
row strip  of  half  inch  stuff  is  nailed  on  each 
end  for  handles  or  ears.  The  boxes  are  nine 
inches  long,  six  inches  wide,  and  four  and  a 
quarter  deep,  made  of  scale  board  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  thick.  They  are  made  by  French  <fe 
Co.,  of  Pulteney,  N.  Y.  The  boxes  hold  five 
pounds,  and  the  crate  six  boxes,  making  thirty 
pounds.  These  crates  are  of  convenient  size, 
carry  well,  and  are  easily  handled.  Their  cost 
is  trifling,  and  they  are  not  generally  expected 
to  be  returned.  For  small  quantities  of  a  few 
pounds,  fancy  and  plain  pasteboard  boxes  are 
sometimes  used ;  but  they  should  be  packed  in 
wooden  crates,  to  prevent  them  from  being 
cinished,  and  the  fruit  spoiled. 

It  requires  some  skill  and  experience  to  pack 


360  American  Grape  Culture. 

grapes  so  that  there  shall  be  no  space  to  permit 
of  jarring  in  handling  the  boxes,  and  no  crushed 
fruit.  It  is  a  kind  of  knowledge  that  can  be 
acquired  by  practice  alone.  In  handling,  care 
should  be  taken  at  all  times  not  to  rub  the 
bloom  from  the  berries,  and  thus  mar  their 
beauty. 

We  may  remark  in  conclusion,  that  while 
poorly  ripened  and  ill-assorted  grapes  are  often 
sold  with  difficulty  at  low  rates,  those  that  are 
ripe  and  selected  with  care  are  uniformly  sought 
after  at  high  prices.  • 

And  here  we  would  add  a  concluding  word 
to  every  fruit  grower  upon  the  advantage  of 
earning  a  good  reputation  for  growing  the  best 
kinds  in  their  greatest  excellence,  and  also  for 
fairness  in  all  the  operations  of  preparing  them 
for  market,  so  that  the  "brand,"  when  once  in- 
troduced and  known,  shall  be  eagerly  sought 
after  by  all  consumers.  Such  reputation  and 
superiority,  it  is  true,  can  only  be  acquired  by 
high  culture  and  a  strict  regard  of  the  morali- 
ties as  respects  both  the  man  and  the  business ; 
but  it  produces  that  fine,  manly  development 
of  the  faculties  which  should  be  the  emulation 
of  all  pursuits,  and  for  which  grape  culture 
affords   such  a   generous  scope.     No  one  need 


Growing  Plants  between  the  Rows.    361 

fear  that  a  time  will  ever  come  wlien  the  supe- 
riority that  results  from  a  liigli  degree  of  skill 
in  the  management  of  the  vine  will  fail  to  meet 
a  correspondingly  high  pecuniary  reward. 

Tying. — It  will  do  no  harm  to  repeat  the 
caution  against  tying  too  tight.  Young  canes 
are  often  tied  so  tight  as  to  be  cut  nearly  in 
two  as  they  increase  in  size.  The  object  of 
tying  is  simply  to  keep  the  cane  in  its  place, 
and  the  string  should  be  sufficiently  loose  to 
admit  of  a  little  play,  which  not  only  avoids 
cutting,  but  prevents  the  canes  from  being 
broken  short  off  at  the  point  of  tying,  an  acci- 
dent which  often  happens.  Arms,  in  being  laid 
down,  sometimes  requii'e  to  be  tied  firmly;  but 
in  such  cases  the  string  must  be  loosened  in 
good  time.  A  small  rope  of  straw  may  be 
used  for  tying  the  arms,  and  left  to  take  care 
of  itself 

Should  Plants  he  Grown  between  the  Mows  f 
— This  question  has  no  little  importance,  and 
should  not  be  overlooked.  There  seems  to  be 
a  great  reluctance  to  give  up  the  whole  ground 
to  the  grape,  especially  when  it  is  young. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  the  vines  will  be 
all  the  better  for  having  the  soil  entirely  to 
themselves,  and  the  best  advice  we  can  give  is. 


362  American  Grape  Culture. 

to  grow  nothing  between  the  rows ;  not  even  a 
weed. 

How  to  Keep  Grapes  in  Winter.  —  Grapes 
have  been  suj)posed  to  be  difficult  to  keep  in 
winter;  but  they  are  about  as  easily  kq3t  as 
aj^ples  or  pears.  All  kinds,  however,  will  not 
keep  any  more  than  all  kinds  of  apples  or 
pears.  The  keeping  qualities  depend  upon 
the  character  of  the  flesh,  which  must  be 
meaty  to  keep  well;  the  Diana  and  lona  are 
consequently  good  keepers ;  but  one  might  as 
well  tr}'-  to  keep  a  Jargonelle  pear  as  a  Concord 
grape.  Some  kinds  will  keep  longer  than  others, 
the  best  at  the  last  drying  into  good  raisins, 
showing  but  little  tendency  to  decay.  The  con- 
ditions are,  a  moderately  cool,  dry,  still  air. 
These  may  be  found  in  a  suitable  room  (not 
artificially  heated)  of  a  cool,  uniform  temper- 
ature. 

Sulphite  of  lime  has  been  successfully  used 
for  absorbing  the  moisture  of  fruit  rooms,  and 
this  may  be  employed  advantageously  in  any 
room  where  much  fruit  is  kept.  The  lime  may 
be  placed  in  a  trough  standing  on  legs,  and 
fitted  with  a  faucet  for  drawing  off  the  water 
absorbed.  The  lime  may  be  dried  and  used 
again.     A  refuse  product  from  the  salt  works 


How  TO  Keep  Grapes  in  Winter.       363 

is  used  on  a  large  scale.  The  Frencli  sometimes 
make  a  rack,  the  cross  pieces  having  circular 
holes  on  the  sides  for  suspending  bottles  by  the 


Fig.  142. 


neck,  as  shown  in  Fig.  142.     The  bottles  are 
filled  with  water,  in  which  a  portion  of  cane, 


Fig.  143. 

with  the  grapes   attached,  is  placed.     In   this 
way  they  will  keep  good  for  some  time.     An- 


364 


American  Grape  Culture. 


other  mode  of  keeping  small  quantities  is  to 
suspend  tliem  from  hoops  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  143.  The  hoops  are  provided  with 
small  wire  hooks,  from  which  the  bunches  are 
suspended  with  the  stem  end  down.  On  a  large 
scale,  a  frame  is  made  resembling  an  arbor, 
from  which  the  grapes  are  suspended  as  shown 
in  Fig.  144.  By  multiplying  the  cross  pieces, 
large  quantities  may  be  keDt  in  this  way. 


Fig.  144. 

In  house  rooms,  under  the  conditions  hereto- 
fore named,  grapes  may  be  kept  in  a  closet,  or 
in  a  bureau  drawer.  Clean  white  paper  should 
be  spread  on  the  bottom,  and  the  bunches 
placed  on  the  paper  singly,  so  that  they  do  not 
touch  each  other.  The  drawer  should  be  kept 
partly  open  till  the  weather  gets  cold,  when  it 


How  TO  Keep  Grapes  in  Winter. 


3G5 


must  be  closed.  But  the  best  of  all  arrauge- 
ments  for  keeping  grapes  in  rooms  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  145.  It  may  be  made  of  any 
convenient  size,  so  as  to  hold  from  one  to  three 
hundred  pounds  of  grapes.     Its  manner  of  con- 


Fig.  145. 


stmction  .vill  T)e  readily  understood  from  an 
examination  of  tbe  engraving.  Tbe  drawers 
stould  te  deep  enongli  for  one  layer  of  grapes, 
or  about  four  or  five  inches,  and  the  bottom 


566 


iiMERiCAN  Grape  Culture. 


made  of  slats.  The  bundles  must  be  carefully- 
laid  on  tlie  bottom,  and  not  toucli  each  other. 
When  filled,  the  lid  must  be  raised  and  propped 
uj),  and  the  door  opened,  and  remain  so  till 
the  weather  gets  cold,  when  the  lid  must  be  let 
down  and  the  door  closed,  and  kept  so.  Venti- 
lation will  not  be  needed  except  on  an  occa- 


Fis.  146. 


sional  warm  day,  wlien.  the  door  and  lid  may 
be  opened  for  a  while.  A  little  frost  will  do 
no  harm;  but  if  there  should  be  danger  of 
freezing,  it  may  be  prevented  by  throwing  a 
blanket  over  the  chest.  In  this  way  some  kinds 
of  grapes  may  be  kept  till  spring.  M^.  146 
shows  the  chest  closed. 


Shelters  for  Protecting  and  Ripening.   367 

For  winter  keeping,  only  the  best  and  evenly 
ripened  grapes  should  be  selected.    All  bruised 
and  imperfect  berries  should  be  cut  out,  and 
the  bloom  preserved  as  far  as  possible,  for  it  has 
something  to  do  with  the  keeping  of  the  fruit. 
The  bunches  should  be  gathered  when  they  are 
dry,  and  handled  with  care,  so  as  not  to  loosen 
the  berries  from  the  stalk.   Whether  suspended 
from  wires   or   laid   in  drawers,  the   bunches 
should  not  come  in  immediate  contact  with  each 
other,  and  they  should  not  be  handled,  excej)t 
to  remove  decaying  berries.   Ventilation  should 
be  regulated  with  reference  to  a  uniformly  low 
temperature,  ranging  from  live  to  ten  above  the 
freezing  point.      Much   moisture    in    the   air 
should  be  provided  against,  either  by  removing 
the  cause  of  it,  or,  where  this  can  not  be  done, 
using  some  good  absorbent,  such  as  the  sulphite 
or  chloride  of  lime.     If  moisture  is  deposited 
on  the  fruit,  it  is  apt  to  produce  mildew.   With 
these   precautions,  grapes   may  be   kept  well 
duriuo-  the  winter. 

o 

Shelters  for  Protecting  and  Ripening  Fruit. 
— It  sometimes  happens  that  a  temporary  shel- 
ter, even  for  a  single  night,  will  save  a  vine  fi'om 
an  early  frost,  thereby  adding  two  or  three 
weeks  to  the  season,  and  insuring  the  full  matu- 


368 


American  Grape  Culture. 


rity  of  tlie  crop.  It  may  be  some  favorite  vine, 
the  fruit  of  whicli  is  liiglily  prized,  or  it  may  be 
a  new  kind  whicli  we  are  anxious  to  test,  and 
an  unseasonable  frost,  if  not  provided  against, 
will  bliglit  our  hopes.  In  such  cases,  a  shelter 
like  that  shown  in  Fig.  147  will  serve  to  protect 
a  single  vine,  or  a  whole  row,  as  the  case  may 
be.  The  cover  can  be  made  of  straw,  or  thin 
boards ;   or  a  light  frame  may  be  made,  and 


covered  with  brown  muslin,  which  might  hang 
over  the  sides  a  foot  or  so  with  advanta2:e.  The 
manner  of  bi'acing  the  posts  is  plainly  seen  in 
the  engraving.     It  is  in  use  by  the  French. 

Fig.  148  shows  an  arrangement  for  protecting 
vines  growing  against  walls.  Though  intended 
for  the  first  two  rows  of  a  Thomery,  it  can  be 


Shelters  for  Protecting  and  Eipening.  369 


made  narrower,  and  used  for  any  wall.  It  is 
the  application  that  we  want  to  illustrate  here. 
The  projecting  cap  or  eave,  No.  1,  is  of  itself  a 
good  protector ;  but  if  more  should  become  de. 
sirable  or  necessary,  then  the  sash.  No.  2,  may 
be  used,  and  will  protect  the  two  front  rows. 
It  may  be  let  down  as  shown  at  No.  4.  If  No. 
3  is  used,  then  we  have  a  protection  that  can 
not  fail   to  secure   the  crop  in  full  maturity. 


i 

^ 

f^ 

// 

/  /' 

// 

// 

( 

// 

/' 

Z                           // 

y     0' 

// 

, 

\// 

I 

// 

/  / 

// 

// 

//                               4 

I 

//  ,.,."::::^'^'"V\ 

0,-- —                1 1 

"5                                       1  1 

0 L! 

[ 

Fig.  148. 


The  principle  may  be  extended  so  as  to  protect 
a  full  Thomery.  Where  sashes  and  similar  con- 
veniences are  not  at  hand,  straw  mats,  pieces  of 
carpet,  or  muslin,  may  be  suspended  from  the 
cap  of  the  wall  or  fence.  If  protectors  such 
as  we  have  described,  or  something  similar,  are 
used  in  a  small  way,  so  as  to  make  their  advan- 

24 


370  American  Grape  Culture. 

tages  apparent,  it  will  not  be  long  before  they 
become  somewhat  general  in  the  vineyard.  If 
it  be  first  demonstrated  on  a  small  scale  that 
the  gain  is  very  much  more  than  enough  to 
pay  for  the  additional  labor  and  expense,  self 
interest,  if  no  other  motive,  will  in  time  make 
shelter  a  necessary  appurtenance  of  the  vine- 
yard. To  encourage  such  trial  is  the  object  of 
introducing  the  illustrations. 

Manures. — A  few  additional  words  on 
manures  will  not  be  out  of  place.  We  should 
depend  chiefly  upon  barn-yard  manure  com- 
posted with  muck.  It  should  be  j^repared  at 
least  one  year  before  it  is  used,  by  being  laid  up 
and  repeatedly  turned,  till  it  has  become  thor- 
oughly decomposed  or  carbonized.  The  leaves 
from  the  vines,  or  some  from  the  woods,  should 
be  added  to  the  heap,  as  may  also  most  other 
things  that  go  to  the  barn-yard,  but  all  must  be 
thoroughly  decomposed.  And  let  it  be  always 
remembered,  in  saving  barn-yard  manure,  that 
the  liquid  is  always  of  very  much  more  value 
than  the  solid  portion.  Besides  furnishing  in 
itself  the  most  precious  of  fertilizing  materials, 
it  performs  the  important  office  of  a  solvent, 
thus  rendering  available  many  essential  mate- 
rials already  in  the  soil,  but  which  can  not  be 


Manures. 


371 


appropriated  till  they  are  made  soluble.  Spe- 
cial manures,  sucli  as  ashes,  bone-dust,  etc.,  are 
best  applied  as  top-dressings.  The  prunings 
should  be  dried  and  burned,  and  the  ashes 
spread  on  the  surface.  We  must  apply  nothing 
to  the  vineyard,  either  in  kind  or  quantity,  that 
will  produce  a  gross,  succulent  growth.  The 
time  to  apply  manure  is  in  the  fall,  after  ap- 
plowing  has  been  done.  The  fiill  rains  will  dis- 
solve  a  part  of  it,  and  carry  it  down  a  few 
inches,  and  the  remainder  will  be  covered 
when  dei^lowing  is  done  in  the  spring.  There 
is  some  waste,  to  be  sure,  but  it  can  not 
be  helped ;  for  we  can  not  apply  and  plow  in 
the  manure  as  we  would  for  a  crop  of  corn. 
The  feeding  roots  of  the  vine  adjust  themselves 
near  the  surface,  and  the  rains  carry  the  manure 
quite  deep  enough  for  their  appropriation. 

How  often  manures  should  be  applied  will  de- 
pend upon  circumstances.  In  a  soil  that  is  natu- 
rally very  rich  and  deep,  it  should  be  applied  only 
at  long  intervals,  except  it  may  be  ashes ;  while 
in  one  that  is  lean  it  should  be  applied  more 
frequently.  The  condition  of  vigor  in  the  vine 
should  guide  us  in  some  degree  in  the  applica- 
tion of  manure,  but  we  should  by  all  means 
avoid  letting  the  vines  "  run  down"  for  want  of 


3^2  American  Grape  Culture. 

nourisliment  in  the  soil.  Manuring  the  vine- 
yard is  one  of  those  cases  in  which  we  must  be 
guided  chiefly  by  our  good  judgment,  avoiding 
the  two  extremes  of  rankness  or  poverty  of 
growth. 

Non-Manuring. — We  have  already  cautioned 
the  student  against  overmanuring,  or  making 
the  soil  too  rich.  A  word  or  two  in  regard  to 
the  opposite  extreme  will  not  be  out  of  place 
There  are  some  virgin  soils  so  rich  in  plant  food 
as  not  to  need  the  addition  of  manure  at  the 
time  vof  planting,  and  for  some  few  years  after- 
ward. There  are  others  that  need  the  addition 
,of  but  a  small  quantity,  and  so  on.  There  are 
those  who  have  planted  on  naturally  rich  soils 
who  entertain  the  idea  that  no  manures  wdll  in 
the  future  be  needed;  that  plant  food  will  be 
perpetually  furnished  by  the  gradual  resolution 
of  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil.  This  is 
a  delusion  that  has  been  fruitful  of  evil,  and 
nothing  but  evil.  It  has  reduced  portions  of 
the  country  to  barrenness^  and  will  reduce 
others  to  the  same  condition  if  persisted  in. 
With  the  fruits  of  it  starinor  us  in  the  face 
daily,  it  is  amazing  that  people  will  not  heed 
its  lessons.  Inexhaustible  fertility  is  a  chimera. 
Nature  has  bountifully  supplied  large  portions 


NoN  Manuring.  373 

of  the  eartli  with  plant  food,  that  man's  first 
and  most  pressing  wants,  in  taking  possession 
of  new  territory,  might  be  easily  supplied ;  but 
she  has  given  us  to  understand,  plainly  and 
sternly,  a  thousand  times  over,  that  beyond  the 
first  instance  she  will  only  work  with  us,  and 
not  for  us.  This  first  supply  of  plant  food 
seems  to  us  like  a  providential  beneficence  for 
which  we  are  not  sufficiently  grateful.  If  we 
approach  the  subject  with  just  views  of  the 
economics  of  nature,  we  shall  not  only  see  the 
impolicy  of  exhausting  the  soil  of  its  fertility, 
but  the  magnitude  of  the  evil  we  are  inflicting 
upon  om*  own  posterity  and  the  country  at 
large.  As  every  crop  we  raise  consumes  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  plant  food,  we  can  not,  by  any 
kind  of  logic,  escape  the  conclusion,  that  crop- 
ping without  feeding  will  ultimately  produce 
barrenness  and  starvation.  It  will  be  wise, 
therefore,  to  begin  to  supply  food  before  the 
stage  of  starvation,  with  its  attendant  evils,  is 
reached.  The  wants  of  the  vine,  in  this  respect, 
should  be  anticipated.  If  the  supply  of  food 
is  withheld  till  the  vines  show  their  want  of  it 
by  feebleness  and  lessened  crops,  an  injury  will 
have  been  done  which  can  not  easily  be  re- 
paired. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 


DISEASES     AND     INSECTS. 


Diseases. — ^The  laws  of  health  and  disease 
are  very  much  the  same  in  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble life :  plants,  in  common  with  man,  will  be- 
come liable  to  disease  by  an  infraction  of  these 
laws.  The  subject  is  so  broad  that  we  can  only 
treat  it  in  a  general  way  here.  We  wish  to  es- 
tablish the  analogy,  however,  since  it  will  do 
away  many  illusions  in  the  mind  of  the  novice. 
Different  kinds  of  animals  have  their  allotted 
periods  of  life :  in  one  kind  it  may  be  ten  years 
or  less,  while  in  others  it  may  be  fifty  or  more ; 
the  elephant,  for  example,  lives  to  a  much 
greater  age  than  the  dog.  It  is  so  with  plants : 
some  fulfill  their  life  in  a  single  year,  while 
others  count  "  the  years  of  their  life"  by  thou- 
sands. The  average  life  of  plants  is  greater 
than  that  of  man.  The  existence  of  both  is 
shortened  by  violence  in  various  forms,  and 
both  are  liable  to  disease.     The  average  health 


Diseases  and  Insects.  ^'^5. 

and  life  of  man  is  greatest  when  lie  lives  in  a 
condition  of  simplicit'y,  supplying  only  the  nat- 
ural wants  of  his  appetites ;  but  when  he  places 
himself  under  artificial  conditions,  he  loses   a 
part  of  his  hardihood,  becomes  more  susceptible 
to  disease  in  its  various  forms,  and  recourse  is 
had  to  various  means  for  restoring  and  main- 
taining, as  well  as  may  be,  the  operation  of  weU- 
known  physical  laws,  which   are  necessary  to 
health.     It  is  the   same  with  plants.     When 
growing  in  their  natural   condition,  they  are 
subject'to  few  diseases  ;  but  when  placed  under 
artificial  conditions,  and  made  tender  and  sus- 
ceptible by  injudicious  hybridizing,  crossing,  se- 
lection, propagation,  etc.,  they  become  peculiarly 
liable  to  disease,  and  means  must  be  used  here 
also  to  restore  and  maintain  the  operation  of 
those  physical  laws  which  apply  to  the   case. 
These  brief  allusions  sufficiently  show  the  gen- 
eral analogy  between  animals  and  plants  in  re- 
spect to  those  physical  laws  which  govern  life. 
If  the  reader  appreciates  it  as  he  should,  h6  wiU 
learn  to  study  the  diseases  of  the  vine  for  him- 
self, and  not  look  upon  them  as  a  sort  of  fatal- 
ity not  to  be  overcome. 

We  will  now  confine  our  remarks  to  the  vine. 
The  vine,  like  man,  is  subject  to  disease  ;  and  as 


376  American  Grape  Cultuhe. 

some  men  are  constitutionally  more  liable  to 
disease  than  others,  so  some  kinds  of  vines  are 
constitutionally  more  liable  to  disease-  than 
others.  There  are  conditions  which  favor,  or 
even  invite,  the  attacks  of  disease  in  men  ;  and 
it  is  the  same  with  the  vine.  All  kinds  of 
vines,  no  matter  what  their  constitution  may  be 
are  liable  to  disease,  if  placed  under  conditions 
favorable  to  its  attacks ;  there  is  not  a  variety  in 
cultivation  that  has  proved  an  exception,  and 
there  never  will  be.  When,  therefore,  it  is  said 
that  a  vine  is  healthy,  it  is  in  the  sense  that  we 
say  a  man  is  healthy  when  he  is  not  subject  to 
constitutional  disease ;  at  least,  that  is  the  sense 
in  which  we  use  the  term.  What  we  wish 
the  reader  to  understand  is  simply  this  :  that 
all  kinds  are  liable  to  disease,  some  more 
and  others  less;  and  that  all  kinds,  without  ex- 
ception, if  placed  under  conditions  unfavorable 
to  the  healthy  action  of  the  leaves  or  roots,  will 
become  enfeebled  or  diseased.  He  will  then  ap- 
preciate the  importance  of  studying  the  condi- 
tions which  are  necessary  to  health  or  strength, 
and  endeavor  to  supply  and  maintain  them ;  he 
will  understand  that  the  health  of  the  vine  is 
in  a  great  measure  under  his  control,  and  that 
he  can  judge  of  the  hardiness  of  kinds  only  by 


Diseases  and  Insects.  377 

tlieir  deportment  under  reasonably  favorable 
conditions  of  growth.  What  we  should  all  of 
us  do,  therefore,  is  to  study  diligently  the  laws 
and  conditions  which  are  concerned  in  the  pre- 
servation of  health  in  plants,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  conditions  that  are  necessary  to  normal  de- 
velopment and  hardy  growth.  These  we  have 
already  so  fully  stated  and  so  earnestly  insisted 
upon,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  them 
here. 

Mildew. — This  is  a  wide-spread  and  destruc- 
tive disease,  and  difficult  to  manage  when  estab- 
lished. It  is  also  known  by  the  botanical  names 
Erysiphe  and  Oidium.  In  portions  of  Europe 
the  Oidium.  Tnckeri  has  at  times  been  partic- 
ularly fatal.  With  us  it  has  been  much  less 
injurious.  Mildew  is  a  parasite  in  the  form  of 
a  fungus,  and  attacks  the  leaves,  fruit,  and 
wood.  It  first  makes  its  appearance  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf,  like  a  fine  mould.  The 
mycelium  penetrates  the  tissue  of  the  leaf,  and 
destroys  it,  when  the  leaf  becomes  discolored  in 
spots,  showing  where  the  fungus  is  at  work. 
In  this  place  we  can  not  do  more  than  state 
briefly  some  of  the  causes  and  conditions  which 
produce  the  disease,  with  the  remedies  that 
have  proved  most  effectual  in  subduing  it. 


378  American  Grape  Culture. 

The  reader  will  get  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  the 
subject  (and  a  general  idea  is  all  we  can  give 
him  here)  if  he  bears  in  mind  that  the  sporules 
of  this  parasite  are  almost  constantly  floating 
in  the  air,  waiting  for  a  favorable  moment  for 
attack,  and  that  the  vine,  to  a  very  consider- 
able degree,  is  able  to  resist  its  attacks  so  long 
as  its  vital  force  remains  unimpaired  and  in  full 
vigor.  Any  cause  whatever  that  impairs  or 
lessens  vital  action  favors  the  attack  of  the 
parasite.  Hence  sudden  atmospheric  changes 
from  heat  to  cold,  cold  rains  following  hot,  dry 
weather,  cold  nights  following  hot  days,  ex- 
treme drought,  prolonged  rains,  and  similar 
causes  that  lower  tlie  action  of  the  plant  more  or 
less  suddenly^  are  followed  by  attacks  of  mildew. 
It  is  generally  first  seen  on  the  leaf,  next  on  the 
wood,  and  last  on  the  fruit,  though  some- 
times this  order  of  attack  is  changed.  It  soon 
enters  the  tissue  of  the  leaf,  and  gradually  de- 
stroys it.  It  also  penetrates  the  cells  of  the 
wood,  giving  them  an  inky  appearance.  The  dis- 
ease has  then  become  what  we  shall  call  consti- 
tutional, and  admits  of  no  cure  except  amputa- 
tion at  some  point  below  the  parts  diseased ; 
even  this  must  not  be  too  long  delayed,  for  we 
have  found  the  disease  to  run  through  the  cells 


Diseases  and  Insects.  379 

with  a  rapidity  that  would  hardly  be  suspected. 
It  would  be  better  to  eradicate  at  once  any  vine 
that  has  become  constitutionally  affected,  for  it 
seldom  recovers  its  health.  Fortunately,  this 
stage  of  the  disease  is  not  as  yet  often  seen. 

Now,  if  the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  the 
parasite  is  favored  in  its  attack  by  a  lowering 
of  the  vital  force  of  the  plant,  he  will  recognize 
the  propriety  of  the  remedies  to  be  used,  which 
are  twofold :  first,  to  abate  the  cause,  if  possible ; 
secondly,  to  apply  some  remedy  that  will  kill 
the  parasite.  The  two  must  be  combined ;  for, 
if  the  cause  which  invited  the  disease  remains, 
it  "will  only  favor  the  multiplication  of  the  very 
enemy  we  are  trying  to  destroy.  In  the  grapery 
these  remedies  are  more  easily  applied  than  in 
the  vineyard ;  still,  we  are  by  no  means  help- 
less. The  atmospheric  conditions  may  be 
against  us,  but  we  must  not  look  idly  on,  like 
fatalists.  Some  effort  must  be  made  to  save  the 
crop.  'It  may  be  that  the  soil  is  hard  and  com- 
pact ;  if  so,  simply  breaking  up  the  surface  a 
couple  of  inches  will  be  a  great  benefit,  but  the 
utmost  care  must  be  used  not  to  disturb  the 
roots.  The  whole  vineyard,  including  the 
drains,  should  be  carefully  examined  to  see 
where  and  how   something  may  be  done  to 


380  American  Grape  Culture. 

restore  the  normal  activity  of  the  plant,  by  the 
application  of  the  principles  elsewhere  ex- 
plained. 

At  the  same  time  we  must  have  recourse  to 
some  remedy  that  will  destroy  the  active  cause 
of  the  disease.  Remedies  without  number  have 
been  suggested,  but,  after  long  trial,  only  one 
has  proved  so  effectual  as  to  commend  itself  to 
general  use,  and  that  is  sulphur.  It  should  be 
applied  directly  to  the  parts  affected,  but  espe- 
cially to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The 
sulphur  should  be  in  the  finest  state  of  powder, 
and  diy;  and  it  should  be  applied  with  con- 
siderable force,  at  least  to  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  so  as  to  penetrate  the  furze  which  gener- 
ally covers  this  part  of  the  leaf.  Sulphur  ap- 
plied in  this  state,  being  acted  upon  by  the  sun's 
heat,  would  seem  to  combine  oxygen  enough  to 
form  sulphurous  acid,  the  vapor  of  which  de- 
stroys the  mildew.  We  have  found  consider- 
able advantage  in  adding  a  portion  of  finel)^ 
powdered  lime,  which  increases  the  action  of 
the  sulphur.  In  this  case,  sulphite  of  lime  is 
formed. 

Various  contrivances  have  been  invented  for 
applying  sulphur,  one  of  the  simplest  of  which 
is  the  bellows  of  De  la  Vergne,  which  resembles 


Diseases  and  Insects. 


381 


a  common  bellows  without  a  valve,  Fig.  149. 
The  sulphur  is  poured  into  the  hole  on  the  top, 
B,  which  is  stopped  with  a  cork  attached  to  a 
string.     The  nozzle  A,  is  about  an  inch  in  di- 


Fis.  149. 


ameter,made  of  tin,  and  curved  upward,  and  the 
hole  at  the  end  covered  with  wire  gauze  for 
dividing  the  sulphur,  and  surmounted  with  a 


Fig.  150. 


spreading  or  basket-like  end  piece  to  give  it 
direction.  A  similar  contrivance,  but  more 
complicated,  is  shown  in  Ficj.  150.    The  sulphur 


382  American  Grape  Culture. 

is  held  in  a  circular  tin  box,  wliicli  forms  a 
part  of  the  nozzle,  the  arrangement  of  which  is 
shown  on  a  larger  scale.  Still  another  form  is 
shown  in  Fig.  151.  In  this  the  sulphur  is 
forced  through  the  nozzle  by  wind  generated 
by  a  fan-wheel.  The  first  bellows  is  much  the 
simplest,  and  answers  the  purpose  well,  ena- 
bling one  to  apply  the  sulphur  rapidly,  and  in 
a  very  thorough  manner 


E 


Fig.  151. 


But  sulphur  is  best  applied  as  a  preventive 
rather  than  a  cure ;  for  if  the  disease  is  allowed 
to  become  firmly  established,  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  eradicate.  The  proper  course,  there- 
fore, is  to  apply  the  sulphur  thoroughly  to  all 
parts  of  the  vine  early  in  the  spring  when  vege- 
tation begins :  many  gardeners  apply  it  in  the 
grapery  as  soon  as  the  vines  are  pruned  in  the 
fall.  It  should  be  applied- again  in  June,  or  as 
often  as  we   have  reason  to    apprehend  such 


Diseases  and  Insects.  383 

II  change  in  the  weather  as  usually  favors  the 
attack  of  mildew,  and  before  it  has  visibly  ap- 
peared. If,  in  addition  to  this,  we  faithfully 
preserve  all  the  conditions  that  are  necessary  to 
the  health  and  well-being  of  the  vine,  mildew 
Avill  be  robbed  of  most  of  its  terrors,  and 
become  a  comparatively  manageable  disease. 
In  this  connection,  the  young  vineyardist  should 
especially  see  that  no  water  is  standing  in  or  on 
the  soil,  avoid  weakening  his  vines  by  over- 
cropping, provide  for  a  circulation  of  air  among 
the  foliage  by  so  tying  the  canes  as  to  prevent 
the  leaves  from  becoming  a  tangled  and  impen- 
etrable mass;  in  short,  apply  faithfully  the 
principles  that  have  been  fully  explained  in  the 
progress  of  this  work. 

j^ot. — Under  this  name,  two  or  three  diseases 
are  known,  variously  called  hroivn  rot,  hitter  rot, 
Hack  rot,  etc.,  the  names  in  some  places  being 
interchanged.  The  brown  rot,  which  is  infre- 
quent, is  a  bromi  spot  on  the  side  of  the  berry 
similar  to  those  seen  on  the  apple  and  pear,  dis- 
.  figuring  the  berry,  but  not  injuring  the  quality 
of  the  fruit.  The  bitter  rot,  on  the  contrary, 
destroys  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  rendering  it  too 
bitter  and  acrid  to  eat.  The  black  rot,  the  most 
common  and  destructive  of  the  three,  makes  its 


384  American  Grape  Culture. 

appearance  as  a  small  diffused  spot,  wMcli  soon 
spreads,  and  involves  the  wliole  flesh.  The  dis- 
ease spreads  through  the  bunch,  and  continues 
its  ravages  till  the  berries  begin  to  color,  when  it 
disappears.  In  appearance  it  resembles  the 
potato  rot,  and  is  about  equally  destructive.  It 
is  of  fungous  origin,  though  its  nature  is  not  well 
understood.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  predisposing  causes  are  very  much  like 
those  that  produce  mildew  on  the  leaf.  Some 
varieties  of  the  grape,  as,  for  example,  the 
Catawba,  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  its  at- 
tack, and  in  unfavorable  seasons  the  fruit  proves 
an  entire  loss.  The  Diana,  Isabella,  Concord, 
and  others  also  suffer  from  its  attacks  in  bad 
seasons,  but  in  a  much  less  degree.  We  know 
of  nothing  better  calculated  to  arrest  the  disease 
than  the  general  course  of  treatment  recom- 
mended for  mildew,  and  sprinkling  the  bunches 
with  finely  powdered  lime,  the  treatment  to  be 
used  as  a  preventive.  The  berries,  however, 
should  be  removed  when  they  become  diseased 
carried  from  the  vineyard,  and  destroyed.  If 
the  disease  is  of  fungous  origin,  it  is  plain  that 
leaving  the  berries  on  the  bunch,  or  on  the 
ground  as  they  fall,  only  serves  to  increase  and 
intensify  it. 


Diseases  and  Insects.  385 

8im  Scald. — This  makes  its  appearance  on 
the  leaves  in  spots  of  greater  or  less  size,  and 
destroys  the  tissue.  It  is  of  a  brick-red  color, 
and  this  may  have  given  rise  to  the  absurd 
brick-yard  theory  by  which  it  was  attempted  to 
account  for  it.  Its  cause  is  not  certainly  known, 
but  it  is  no  doubt  of  atmospheric  origin.  It  is 
supposed,  with  some  reason,  that  globules  of 
moisture  are  formed  into  lenses,  and  the  sun, 
acting  upon  these,  burns  the  leaves.  It  does 
not  often  affect  the  general  health  of  the  vine 
seriously.     We  know  of  no  remedy. 

These  are  the  principal  diseases  of  the  vine, 
in  regard  to  whicli  it  may  be  said,  that  they  are 
mostly  of  such  a  nature  that  remedies,  to  be 
effective,  must  be  used  q,b  preventives  rather  than 
cures. 

INSECTS. 

It  would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  say  whether 
the  vine  suffers  most  from  insects  or  disease,  but 
we  think  insects  might  easily  be  managed  by 
concerted  action.  In  every  fruit-growing  dis- 
trict there  should  be  an  "  Insect  Society,"  which 
should  have  a  grand  spring  and  fall  exhibition, 
with  smaller  weekly  ones  ad  interim.  At  these 
exhibitions  prizes  should  be  offered  for  the  "  big- 

25 


386  American  Grape  Culture. 

gest  bushel  "  of  rose-bugs,  the  "  largest  quart " 
of  curculios,  and  so  on.  These  prizes  should 
be  liberal  enough  to  enlist  the  services  of  men, 
women,  and  children,  among  whom  there  are  al- 
ways idlers  enough  to  keep  the  "  insect  plague  " 
within  harmless  bounds.  We  have  tried  the 
experiment  with  the  best  results.  The  insect 
collectors  had  access  to  all  the  trees  and  vines 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  they  very  seldom  in- 
jured a  plant.  It  is  only'by  some  kind  of  united 
action  that  much  good  can  be  effected.  With 
its  aid,  the  rose-bug  has  been  made  to  disappear 
from  some  localities,  and  so  might  other  kinds 
of  insects. 

The  Rose-hug^  {Melolontha  sub8pi7iosa,  Fig. 
152.) — This  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
structive pests  that  troubles  the  vine. 
It  makes  its  ai^pearance  in  great  mul- 
titudes about  the  time  the  vine  comes 
Fig.  152.  -^^^  blossom,  which  it  soon  destroys, 
and  often  injm-es  the  foliage.  If  the  vine  is  jar- 
red, the  beetles  drop  to  the  ground,  but  soon  make 
their  way  back.  This  dropping  propensity  has 
suggested  the  best  method  of  destroying  them, 
which  is  to  hold  a  basin  of  water  under  them, 
and  jar  the  vine,  when  they  immediately  drop. 
A  couple  of  active  men  will  soon  go  over  an 


Diseases  and  Insects.  387 

acre ;  but  the  operation  will  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times.  When  collected  in  this  way,  they 
must  be  killed  by  crushing  or  pouring  boiling 
hot  water  on  them,  for  they  have  as  many 
lives  as  a  cat.  We  have  kept  them  in  a  barrel 
of  water  for  half  a  day,  and  had  most  of  them 
come  out  alive.  They  are  too  stupid  to  know 
when  they  are  dead.  Birds  will  not  eat  them, 
for  their  hooked  claws  cause  them  to  stick  in 
the  throat.  We  remember  once  seeing  a  cat- 
bird have  one  in  its  bill ;  it  seemed  to  be  deliber- 
ating whether  it  should  run  the  risk  of  swallow- 
ing it,  but  we  finally  got  tired  of  waiting  the 
result,  and  left.  It  has  been  said  that  j)oultry 
are  very  fond  of  them,  but  any  body  can  con- 
vince himself  that  this  is  not  so.  The  only  effect- 
ual remedy  is  the  basin  of  water  and  a  stout 
foot.  We  have  tried  many  others,  but  found 
them  all  wanting. 

3fay  Beetle  or  Cockcliafer. — ^There  are  several 
of  this  family  that  are  hurtful  to  the  vine,  but 
the  most  numerous  and  destructive  is  the  com- 
mon May  Beetle,  {Phyllophaga  quercina  of 
Harris,)  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  long.  At  night  the  air  is  full 
of  them,  and  a  light  will  entice  large  numbers 
into   the   house.     They  destroy  the   fruit  and 


388  American  Grape  Culture. 

leaves  in  the  beetle  state,  and  prey  upon  tlie 
young  and  tender  roots  of  all  kinds  of  plants 
wlien  in  the  larva  form ;  they  are  especially 
destructive  to  the  roots  when  the  larvae  get  to 
be  three  or  foui'  years  old,  when  they  are  about 
three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  quite 
an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  the  head  is  brown,  the 
body  yellowish  white,  and  the  tail  a  dull  blue. 
Multitudes  of  the  larvae  are  turned  up  in  plow- 
ing and  spading.  Poultry  eat  the  larvae  as  well 
as  the  beetle  greedily,  and  they  should  be  al- 
lowed to  inin  at  large  when  these  operations 
are  performed. 

Late  at  night  and  about  daylight  in  the  morn- 
ing are  the  best  times  for  destroying  the  beetles. 
If  the  plant  is  jaiTed  at  this  time,  they  will 
generally  drop,  and  may  be  caught  on  a  sheet  or 
in  a  basket.  At  midnight  and  later  we  have 
stripped  them  from  the  vine,  guelder  rose,  etc., 
by  handfuls,  the  plants  seeming  to  be  black  witli 
them.  In  the  evening  they  are  on  the  wing. 
It  is  only  between  midnight  and  daylight  that 
they  can  be  found  congregated  together  in  this 
way.  Birds  are  very  fond  of  them,  but  the 
beetles  conceal  themselves  during  the  day,  and 
are  not  easily  found. 

We  have  no  remedy  for  the  larvae,  except  ex- 


Diseases  and  Insects.  389 

posing  them  by  turning  up  the  soil,  when  large 
numbers  of  them  will  be  destroyed  by  poultry 
and  birds.  The  moles  help  a  little,  for  we  have 
found  both  the  larvae  and  the  beetle  in  its  stom- 
ach. Fortunately,  all  the  cockchafers  prefer 
grass  land  for  their  nidus,  so  that  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  larvae  are  confined  mostly  to  young 
vineyards  made  on  newly  broken  land. 

The  spotted  bug  (Pelidnota 
punctata,  Fig.  153)  is  also  an 
enemy  to  the  vine,  destroying 
the  fruit  and  the  leaves.  It  is 
a  large  yellowish  brown  beetle, 
with  three  dark  spots  on  each 
Fig.  153.  wing  cover,  and  a  similar  spot 

on  each  side  of  the  thorax.  They  appear  in 
July  and  August,  and,  unlike  the  May  beetle, 
fly  by  day.  They  are  usually  found  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  must  be  destroyed 
by  hand,  like  the  rest.  They  are  not  numerous, 
however. 

About  the  size  of  this,  but  appearing  as  early 
as  May,  is  the  golden  bug,  (^Areoda  lanigera^ 
a  very  beautiful  beetle  of  a  bright  lustrous 
yellow.  It  sometimes  eats  the  leaves  of  the 
vine,  and  very  rarely  the  berries.  The  larvae  of 
this   and  the   Pelidnota  are   like  that  of  the 


390  America]^  Grape  Culture. 

May  beetle.  We  have  several  times  hatched 
both  these  beetles  from  larvse  found  in  old 
manure .  heaps,  thinking  we  had  the  larva  of 
the  May  beetle. 

The  Vine  CTiafer,  {Anomala  codehs^  resem- 
bling a  small  May  beetle,  we  have  found  one  of 
the  greatest  beetle  pests  that  infests  the  vine. 
They  appear  in  June  and  July,  are  about  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  long,  i-ather  T)road,  and  of  a 
muddy  brown  color ;  we  have  sometimes  seen 
them  blackish  brown.  On  the  least  jar  they 
double  their  legs  up  quickly  and  drojD  to  the 
o-round.  Catching  them  on  sheets  as  they  fall 
is  the  best  way  to  destroy  them.  There  is 
another  beetle  resembling  this  in  color  and 
form,  but  only  about  one  third  the  length,  that 
eats  the  unexpanded  buck  Some- 
times they  are  quite  numerous. 

SteelrUue  Beetle^  {Haltica  cha- . 
hfbia^  Fig.  154,  enlarged  four 
times.) — In  some  seasons  and 
places  this  beetle,  though  quite 
small,  does  a  large  amount  of 
harm,  appearing  in  great  numbers,  and  attack- 
ing the  buds  just  as  they  begin  to  swell.  They 
sometimes  buiy  their  whole  bodies  in  the  bud, 
eating  out  the  young  bunches  and  leaves.   They 


Fi-r,  154. 


Diseases  and  Insects.  391 

continue  their  depredations  until  tlie  fniit  lias 
set.  Wliere  they  are  numerous,  grapes  become 
very  scarce.  They  seem  to  be  somewhat  migra- 
tory in  their  habits.  The  only  remedy  that  we 
know  of  is  to  knock  them  oif  and  kill  them. 
Vine  Hopper  or  TJirips^  {Tettigonia  mtis^Fig. 
155,  enlarged  four  times.) — This  has 
become  one  of  the  most  formidable  in- 
sect enemies  that  the  vineyardist  has  to 

Fig.  155. 

contend  with.  Its  general  appearance  is- 
like  that  of  a  cicada  or  locust,  but  it  is  very 
diminutive  in  size,  less  than  an  eighth  of  an 
inch,  but  as  "lively  as  a  cricket."  It  is  of 
a  pale  straw  color  or  whitish  yellow,  with 
two  little  red  lines  on  the  head.  They  be- 
gin to  appear  in  June  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf,  and  are  then  wingless.  As  they  in- 
crease in  size  they  shed  their  stins,  and  finally 
become  winged.  They  suck  the  juice  from  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  turn  yellow,  and  un- 
fittino"  them  for  their  functions  to  such  a  deOTee 
as  to  impair  the  ripening  of  both  the  fruit  and 
the  wood.  They  sometimes  abound  in  such 
myriads  that,  if  the  vine  be  disturbed,  it  is 
impossible  to  breathe  without  inhaling  them. 
Some  of  the  remedies  proposed  for  their  de- 
struction  are   altogether  impracticable  in  the 


392  American  Grape  Culture. 

vineyard.  Of  all  tlie  remedies  we  have  tried, 
we  have  found  lime  and  sulphur  to  be  the  best. 
Two  parts  of  sulphur  and  one  of  powdered 
caustic  lime  should  be  well  mixed,  and  applied 
with  the  bellows  above  described.  It  should 
be  thrown  on  all  parts  of  the  foliage,  but  espe- 
cially the  under  side.  Under  this  treatment 
they  will  cease  to  be  formidable.  Rain  or  high 
winds  will  make  it  necessary  to  repeat  the 
application.  The  best  time  to  a23ply  it  is  in 
the  morning  when  the  air  is  still. 

The  red  spider  (^Acarus  tellarius)  is  some- 
times tfound  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and 
succumbs  to  the  sulphur  remedy  above.  It 
should  be  applied  when  they  first  appear,  for 
they  soon  sj)in  a  fine  web  which  is  not  easy  to 
penetrate.  A  species  of  black  Apliis^  Fig.  156, 
is  also  sometimes  found  on  the  ends 
of  the  canes,  but  is  readily  destroyed 
by  drawing  tne  cane  through  either  the 
Fig.  156.     gloved  or  naked  hand. 

Oaterpillars. — Several  kinds  of  caterpillars 
are  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  vine.  The 
large  greeu  caterpillars  of  some  of  the  Sphinges, 
like  those  so  common  on  the  tomato,  are  some- 
times destructive  to  young  vines,  in  a  very  short 
time  consuming  every  leaf  on  the  plant.     Those 


Diseases  and  Insects.  393 

tliat  live  on  the  vine  have  been  placed  in  a 
group  by  Harris,  and  called  Philamjpeliis,  or 
lovers  of  the  vine.  Fig.  157  is  the  larva  of 
one  of  these,  of  the  natural  size.  Killing  by 
hand  is  the  only  remedy. 


Fig.  15T. 


The  bluish  brown  caterpillar  of  the  Eudryas 
grata,  which  appears  early  in  July,  is  a  gi'eat 
pest  in  some  localities.  It  not  only  consumes 
the  entire  foliao-e,  but  eats  off  the  bunches  of 
fruit.  They  are  so  small  at  first  as  scarcely  to 
be  seen,  but  grow  fast.  Lime  and  sulphur,  as 
well  as  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap,  or  the 
Gishurst  compound,  will  destroy  them ;  but  it 
is  difficult  to  make  solutions  reach  them,  and 
hand-picking  is  tedious,  as  they  conceal  them- 
selves on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  Birds  are 
very  fond  of  them ;  hence  in  the  cities,  where 
there  are  no  birds,  these  caterpillars  make  sad 
work  with  the  vine.  The  lime  and  sulphur 
remedy  may  drive  them  off,  but  we  have  not 
tried  it. 


394  American  Geape  Culture. 

The  caterpillar  of  tlie  Procris  Americana  is 
also  a  pest,  but  less  formidable  than  the  pre- 
ceding, since  it  is  gregarious;  the  whole  nest 
keep  together,  feeding  along  side  by  side.  It 
first  consumes  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  It  is 
yellow,  with  black  tufts  along  its  back. 

The  caterpillar  of  the  Selandria  vitis,  a  spe- 
cies of  saw-fly,  is  also  gregarious,  feeding  in 
rows  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  It  is  lis-ht 
green,  with  a  black  head  and  tail.  Botli  these 
kinds  of  caterpillars  skould  be  looked  for  early ; 
being  in  schools,  they  are  easily  killed.  They 
may  be  found  in  July  and  August.  Better 
still,  look  for  the  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf,  and  destroy  them. 

The  leaves  of  tke  vine  will  sometimes  be  seen 
rolled  up.  This  is  done  by  one  of  the  leaf-roll- 
ers,  a  lively  little  green  caterpillar,  which,  on 
being  disturbed,  will  speedily  roll  itself  out 
and  fall  down,  suspended  by  a  fine  web.  They 
may  be  crushed  in  the  leaf. 

Early  in  the  season,  when  the  young  shoots 
have  grown  an  inch  or  so,  the  young  leaves  will 
be  found  drawn  together  so  as  to  seriously  in- 
terfere with  the  upward  growth.  If  the  leaves 
be  drawn  carefully  apart,  there  will  be  found  a 
small,  brownish-yellow  caterpillar,  covered  with 


Diseases  and  Insects.  395 

short  hairs,  Figs.  158  and  159.  It  destroys 
the  young  bunches  of  fruit  as  well  as  the 
leaves.  The  caterpillar  is  very  tender,  and  a 
slight  pressure  will  crush  it.  The  young  leaves 
may  thus  be  pressed  together  sufficiently  hard 
to  kill  the  caterpillar  without  injury  to  them, 
and  then  drawn  apart.  In  this  way  they  can 
be  disposed  of  pretty  quickly.  Unless  they  are 
killed  early,  the  crop  will  be  materially  less- 
ened. 


-:-:-lli;;i::i/:!-'iTTTi 

Fig.  15S,  Caterpillar.  Pig.  159,  Moth. 

Occasionally  the  leaves  near  the  end  of  tke 
growing  cane  will  be  found  covered  with  pro- 
tuberances, which,  on  being  opened,  are  found 
to  contain  a  small  yellow  slug,  which  seems  to 
1)6  the  larva  of  some  gall-ily,  but  which  we  do 
not  know,  not  having  yet  succeeded  in  matur- 
ing them.  They  do  not  seem  to  materially 
check  the  growth  of  the  cane,  but  still  it  would 
be  well  to  destroy  them. 

Younix  vines  that  start  from  a  bud  under  or 
very  near  the  surface  are  sometimes  eaten  partly 
or   entirely  oif  by  the  cut-worm.     Sometimes 


396  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  damage  done  in  this  way  is  quite  serious. 
The  worm  may  be  found  near  the  plant,  and 
about  an  inch  under  the  surface.  Young  vines 
in  similar  condition  are  also,  but  not  so  often, 
attacked  by  the  wire-worm.  The  young  vine 
makes  a  good  start,  but  after  a  while  stops 
growing,  and  finally  sickens  away  and  dies. 
The  mischief  is  discovered  only  when  it  is  too 
late.  The  course  of  the  vine  is  similar  to  this, 
also,  when  the  roots  are  preyed  upon  by  the 
larva  of  the  May  beetle ;  but  the  May  beetle 
preys  upon  the  roots  of  young  and  old  alike. 

It  would  be  curious  to  learn  how  much  of 
the  damage  to  fruit  trees,  of  all  kinds,  now  im- 
puted to  drought,  winter  killing,  eim.,  really  be- 
longs to  grubs  of  various  kinds  constantly  prey- 
ing upon  the  roots,  and  thus  unfitting  the  plants 
to  withstand  changes  and  extremes  of  any  kind. 
We  are  now  investigating  this  interesting  ques- 
tion, and  have  already  reached  the  conclusion 
that  "  drought,"  "  winter  killing,"  etc.,  are  by 
no  means  as  great  sinners  as  they  are  made  to 
appear.  A  "  scape-goat"  has  always  been  found 
a  convenient  animal,  and  horticulturists  have 
two  or  three  almost  as  big  as  elephants. 

Those  who  -wish  to  make  themselves  familiar 


Diseases  and  Insects.  397 

with  the  habits  of  insects  should  consult  the 
works  of  Harris,  Fitch,  Trimble,  etc.,  and  the 
monthly  publication  called  "The  Entomolo- 
gist." 


PART    SECOKD. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

PLAlSr    OF    QUESNEL— MODES    OF  BEDDIlSra  VESTES 

PLAjNT     OF     CHAEMEUX GKOUIS^D      TEAINING 

TRAINING      WITHOUT      STAKES TRAINING      ON 

TREES    AND    TRELLIS    COMBINED RINGING    THE 

VINE A  MILDEWED  LEAF A  RACK  FOR  STAKES 

"  HEELING    IN." 

We  have  endeavored,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
preserve  tlie  elementary  character  of  this  vol- 
ume, and  have,  therefore,  confined  the  subject 
of  training  to  the  explanation  and  application 
of  its  principles,  and  working  them  out  on  the 
most  useful  forms,  giving  only  a  few  examples 
of  what  is  commonly  called  "  fancy  "  training,  as 
"  studies  "  for  the  student,  to  aid  him  in  a  more 
thorough  application  of  the  principles  to  forms 
or  systems  in  general.  To  this  end  we  might 
have  added  a  few  more  in  the  body  of  the  work, 
but  we  wished  to  avoid  distracting;  the  reader's 


400  American  Grape  Culture. 

mind  with  unusual  forms  or  references  till  he 
had  fully  mastered  the  principles  of  training, 
and  hence  no  reference  is  made  to  this  part. 
The  examples  now  presented  will  further  as- 
sist the  student  in  applying  the  principles  of 
training  to  a  variety  of  cases  that  occur  in  the 
surroundings  of  the  home.  He  should  study 
the  principle  as  well  as  the  form. 

Plan  of  Quesnel. — We  have  elsewhere  al- 
luded to  the  ingenuity  of  the  French  in  work- 
ing out  forms  to  meet  the  wants  of  cases  as  they 
arise,  or  rather  to  anticipate  them.  Fig.  160  is 
an  example.  It  is  a  literal  copy  from  Du  Breuil, 
and  shows,  among  other  things,  how  the  French 
alternate  the  double  and  single  spurs,  a  practice 
quite  common  among  them  when  the  necessity 
of  the  case  calls  for  it,  either  for  renewal  or  to 
favor  the  length  of  the  arm.  It  affords  facilities, 
also,  for  replacing  an  arm  in  the  manner  else- 
where described.  It  has  been  explained  that 
there  is  a  difficulty  in  keeping  arms  in  full  bear- 
ing when  extended  much  beyond  four  feet  in 
length.  Where  there  is  a  necessity  for  making 
them  longer,  as  in  the  example  before  us,  the 
introduction  of  the  single  spur  will  aid  mate- 
rially in  keeping  them  in  full  bearing.  They 
should  be  started,  as  a  rule,  from  base  buds  ; 


Plan  of  Quesnel. 


401 


and  with  the  attention  that  may  always  be 
given  to  the  limited  number  of  vines  grown  in 
this  way,  these  single  spurs  may  be  kept  reason- 
ably short.  When  they  get  long,  they  must  be 
renewed. 


Fig.  160. 


The  form  in  Fig.  160  maybe  adapted  to  high 
walls,  sides  of  cottages,  extensions,  stables,  etc. 
In  the  figure  the  wall  is  about  twelve  feet  high 


402  American  Grape  Culture. 

and  twelve  feet  wide,  and  tlie  vines  are  planted 
two  feet  apart.  The  plants  sliould  be  of  the 
best  possible  description,  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig,  3,  p.  36.  Such  vines  will  have  stout  canes, 
which  will  hasten  materially  the  formation  of 
the  upper  tiers.  The  stocks  that  support  the 
upper  tiers  should  be  carried  up  so  as  to  shade 
equally  the  arms  of  the  lower  tiers,  as  shown  in 
the  engraving.  The  arms  are  formed  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  vines  are  planted  about  a 
foot  from  the  wall,  and  the  trellis  set  the  same 
distance  from  it,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  circulation 
of  air  l)etween  the  vines  and  tlie  wall. 

Modes  of  Bedding  Vines. — But  vines  that 
are  planted  t\vo  feet  apart,  and  only  a  foot 
from  the  wall,  speedily  interfere  with  each  other 
by  the  intermingling  of  their  roots ;  and  the 
weak  are  gradually  overpowered  by  the  strong. 
The  soil  being  warmest  next  the  wall,  the  roots 
congregate  and  work  there,  so  that  the  weak 
vines  have  but  a  remote  chance  of  recovering. 
This  difficulty  is  overcome,  and  the  soil  more 
evenly  filled  with  roots,  l^y  planting  the  vines 
several  feet  from  the  wall,  and  bringing  them 
up  to  it  by  layering  or  bedding.  The  wall  Avill 
not  be  so  soon  covered,  it  is  true,  but  the  vines 
may  be  fruited  while  being  brought  to  the  wall, 


Modes  of  Bedding  Vines. 


403 


and  in  tliis  respect  there   need  be  no   special 
loss. 

Let  us  illustrate  the  manner  of  doing  this. 
Fig.  161  will  help  the  reader  to  understand  the 
operations  to  be  performed.  The  vines  may  be 
planted  from  three  to  six  feet  from  the  wall^  but 


rig.  161. 


in  the  illustration  the  lesser  distance  will  be 
taken.  Proceed  as  follows :  Three  feet  from  the 
wall,  and  parallel  with  it,  dig  a  trench,  and  in 
it  plant  the  vines  two  feet  apart.  Put  a  stake 
to  each,  and  grow  a  single  cane  the  first  year,  as 
seen  at  A.     In  the  fall  prune  this  cane  about 


404  Amekican  Gkape  Cultuke. 

eighteen  inclies  long,  and  lay  it  down  for  the 
winter.  In  the  spring  of  the  second  year  move 
the  stakes  one  foot  nearer  the  wall,  and  bed  or 
layer  the  canes  to  the  stakes,  bending  up  the 
ends  and  tying  them  to  the  stakes.  On  the 
end  of  the  cane  bent  up  select  two  buds  for 
canes,  and  disbud  the  rest.  The  lower  bud 
should  be  on  the  side  facing  the  wall,  and  low 
down,  to  facilitate  the  next  bedding.  The 
bedded  portion  of  the  cane  should  be  treated 
as  directed  for  layers.  From  the  selected  buds 
grow  two  canes,  as  seen  at  H.  They  may  carry^ 
two  bunches  of  fruit.  In  the  fall,  cut  the 
upper  cane  entirely  away  at  the  cross-mark  a  / 
then  cut  the  lower  cane  about  eighteen  inches 
long,  and  cover  for  the  winter. 

In  the  spring  of  the  third  year  move  the 
stakes  one  foot  nearer  to  the  wall,  and  bed  the 
canes  to  the  stakes  as  before.  Select  three 
buds  for  canes  this  year,  like  C,  having  the  low- 
est bud  on  the  side  next  the  wall.  The  bedded 
cane  must  be  treated  as  usual.  The  canes  may 
carry  two  bunches  each.  In  the  fall,  cut  the 
two  upper  canes  entirely  away  at  «,  prune  the 
lower  cane  about  eighteen  inches  long,  and 
cover  for  the  winter.  In  the  spring  of  the 
fourth  year,  the  canes  are  bedded  to  within  a 


Modes  of  Bedding  Vines. 


405 


foot  of  the  wall,  aud  three  buds  selected  for 
canes  on  the  vines  that  are  to  form  the  two 
lower  tiers  ;  on  those  for  the  upper  tiers  select 
one  bud.  In  this  way  all  the  arms  may  be  be- 
gun at  the  same  time  ;  for  the  vines  are  now  so 
strong^  that  those  restricted  to   one  bud  will 


Fig.  162 


make  canes  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  wall. 
Each  of  the  canes  may  carry  two  bunches  of 
fruit.  The  upper  canes  in  all  the  above  in- 
stances should  be  pinched  two  or  three  leaves 
above  the  fruit,  and  the  pinching  frequently  re- 
peated. The  object  is  to  make  the  lower  cane 
as  stout  as  possible,  and  to  confine  the  action  in 


406 


American  Geape  Cdltuee. 


the  other  canes  as  much  as  possible  to  the  fruit, 
this  being  the  only  purpose  for  which  these 
canes  are  grown ;  if  the  action  is  very  strong, 
they  may  be  bent  down.  In  the  fall  of  this 
year,  the  vines  will  present  the  appearance 
shown  in  Fig.  162.  The  upper  canes  must  now 
all  be  out  off  at  «,  and  the  lower  canes  pruned 
at  the  points  where  it  is  desired  to  form  the 
arms.  To  ascertain  these  points,  the  vines  must 
be  bent  to  their  places  on  the  wall.  The  pnm- 
ing  finished,  the  vines  are  to  be  laid  down  for 
the  winter.  From  this  point  the  training  is 
proceeded  with  as  explained  above  \n.Fig.  160. 


Fig.  163. 

By  the  plan  shown  in  i^«^^.  163,  half  the  num- 
ber of  vines  may  be  saved,  which  is  an  object 
where  good  vines  are  scarce ;  but  it  will  occupy 
a  year  more  to  establish  the  vines  in  full  bear- 
ing.    In  this   case,  the  vines  are  planted  four 


Modes  of  Bedding  Yines.  407 

feet  apart  instead  of  two,  and  brouglit  to  the 
wall  in  the  manner  above  described  till  the  last 
beddino^  is  reached,  when  two  canes  are  bedded 
instead  of  one,  and  at  an  angle,  as  seen  in  the 
engraving.  The  ends  are  turned  up,  and  one 
cane  grown  on  each  for  stocks. 

Still  another  method  may  be  pursued,  which 
will  be  found  very  useful  where  the  number  of 
stocks  required  is  so  great  as  to  make  very  close 
planting  indispensable.  Let  us  suppose  we  have 
a  building  so  high  and  narrow  as  to  require  the 
stocks  to  be  one  foot  apart  in  order  to  furnish 
the  necessary  number  of  tiers  of  arms.  In  this 
case  proceed  as  follows :  six  feet  from  the  build- 
ing plant  a  row  of  vines  two  feet  apart ;  six 
feet  in  front  of  these,  or  twelve  feet  from  the 
building,  plant  another  row  of  vines  two  feet 
apart.  The  vines  in  these  two  rows  must  alter- 
nate each  other  in  the  line  of  direction  to  the 
building,  so  that  the  vines  in  the  outer  row, 
when  bedded,  will  come  between  the  vines  in 
the  first  row.  The  first,  or  inner  row,  must  be 
bedded  to  the  building.  The  second  row  must 
be  bedded  to  within  five  or  six  inches  of  the 
line  where  the  first  row  was  planted.  At  this 
point  grow  one  good  cane  on  each,  and  in  the 
fall    prune   it   about    six    feet    long.     In   the 


408  American  Grape  Culture. 

spring,  dig  a  very  narrow  trencli,  about  six 
Indies  deep,  from  tliese  canes  to  the  building. 
Now  procure  some  small  round  tile,  pass  the 
cane  through  the  tile,  lay  the  tile  in  the  trench, 
and  cover,  turning  up  the  end  of  the  cane  about 
a  foot  from  the  building.  The  object  of  run- 
ning the  cane  through  the  tile  is  to  prevent  it 
from  emitting  roots,  and  interfering  with  the 
vines  planted  in  the  first  row,  which  are  already 
so  close  together  as  to  need  all  the  border  adja- 
cent to  the  building.  Instead  of  running  them 
through  the  tile,  they  may  be  grown  above 
ground  till  two  years  old,  when  the  disposition 
to  root  will  be  less ;  but  the  best  plan  is  to  use 
the  tile,  and  put  the  vines  in  their  places  at 
once.  If  the  number  of  vines  required  for  the 
tiers  makes  it  necessary,  three  rows  of  vines 
may  be  planted,  allowing  five  or  six  feet  of 
border  for  each  row. 

The  manner  of  performing  the  operation 
once  understood,  the  reader  will  readily  com- 
prehend how  it  may  be  modified  and  adapted 
to  a  variety  of  circumstances.  For  example,  we 
may  wish  to  grow  vines  on  the  side  of  a  house, 
but  there  is  no  suitable  place  for  a  border 
within  ten  or  twenty  feet  of  it.  In  this  case, 
the  canes  may  be  brought  to  the  house  gradu- 


Plan  of  Chaemeux. 


409 


410  Amekican  Grape  Culture. 

ally  tlirough  tile,  or  the  canes  may  l>e  grown 
along  tlie  border  till  they  are  sufficiently  long 
to  reacL.  the  house,  and  then  carried  there 
through  the  tile,  and  brought  up  through  neat 
earthen  pedestals.  There  are  many  other  cases 
in  which  the  plan  may  be  usefully  applied, 
such,  for  example,  as  making  a  border  on  one 
side  of  a  house  whiie  the  vines  are  trained  on 
another. 

Plan  of  Cliarmeux. — Fig.  164  presents  an- 
other good  "  study,"  which  may  be  applied  to  a 
wall,  a  high  trellis,  or  a  house.  It  is  another  lite- 
ral copy  fi'om  the  French,  showing  the  alternate 
single  and  double  spurs,  and  also  an  improved 
arrangement  of  the  stocks,  by  which  the  arms 
in  the  lower  tiers  are  more  equally  shaded.  It 
is  the  j)lan  practiced  at  Thomery  by  M.  Char- 
meux.  It  was  found,  in  the  course  of  time, 
that  the  shading  of  one  arm  more  than  another 
produced  an  unfavorable  effect,  destroying  the 
balance  of  the  arms,  and  the  present  arrange- 
ment was  made  to  counteract  it.  It  will  be 
seen,  on  examination,  that  the  stocks  of  the 
upper  tiers  shade  the  lower  arms  in  about  the 
same  place  on  each  side.  This  is  a  matter  of 
more  moment  than  would  at  first  sight  appear. 
The  stocks  might,  indeed,  be  carried  up  behind 


Ground  Training.  411 

the  trellis,  and  shading  the  arms  thus  avoided, 
but  it  would  involve  considerable  trouble.  The 
reader  will  notice  here,  again,  that  the  spurs  are 
alternately  single  and  double ;  and  this  he  will 
iind  to  be  very  often  the  case  in  French  train- 
ing, where  the  arms  much  exceed  four  feet  in 
length,  and  in  some  cases  where  it  does  not. 
By  lessening  or  increasing  the  number  of  tiers, 
this  plan  can  be  readily  applied  to  a  wall,  trel- 
lis, or  house  of  any  height.  The  mode  of 
training  the  reader  already  understands. 

Ground  Training. — In  Fig.  165  the  reader  will 


Fig.  165. 

iind  another  "  study,"  called  ground  training. 
It  consists  of  a  system  of  three  double  spurs, 
with  the  fruit  canes  bent  horizontally  in  ray 
form,  and  tied  to  low  stakes,  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  high.  It  is  practiced  in  the 
north  of  France.  A  good  stout  cane  must  first 
be  grown,  and  this  pruned  so  as  to  get  three 
canes  for  spurs  at  the  proper  height.  These 
three  canes  must  be  pruned  to  the  two  lowest 
buds  for  spurs,  and  the  spurs  bent  down  hori- 


412  American  Grape  Culture. 

zontally,  so  as  to  bring  tliem  all  on  tlie  same 
level.  To  do  the  training  neatly,  at  three  feet 
j&'om  the  stock,  six  stakes  should  be  driven  in 
at  equal  distances,  so  as  to  form,  a  circle  six  feet 
in  diameter.  Connect  the  opposite  stakes  to- 
gether by  wires  crossing  each  other  in  the 
middle  at  the  stock.  From  each  spur  two  canes 
must  be  grown,  making  a  cane  for  each  wire. 
The   canes  may  carry  two  bunches  each,  and 


Fig.  166. 


should  receive  their  first  pinching  three  leaves 
from  the  fruit.  Athallage  will  need  pretty 
constant  attention.  The  fruit,  in  consequence 
of  receiving  so  much  radiated  heat  from  the 
earth  in  the  fall,  will  ripen  finely.  An  early 
frost  may  easily  be  kept  off  by  throwing  a  sheet 
over  the  vine. 

Training  without  Stakes. — Fig.  166  is  an  ex- 


Training  on  Trees  and  Trellis.        413 

ample  of  growing  vines  without  stakes.  It  is 
given  for  information,  rather  than  as  an  ex- 
ample to  be  followed  here.  It  was  first  pro- 
posed by  M.  Miramont.  Its  primary  object 
seems  to  have  been  to  secure  shade  for  the  fruit 
as  much   as  any   thing   else.    The  vines,   of 


Fig.  16T. 

course,  must  be  grown  close  together,  and  fiu'- 
nished  with  two  single  spurs. 

Training  on  Trees  and  Trellis  combined. — 
Fig.  167  presents  another  example  of  French 
training,  by  which  trees   and  a  trellis  are  so 


414  American  Grape  Culture. 

covered  as  to  fonn  a  beautiful  rustic  arbor, 
affording  a  grateful  shade  as  well  as  fruit.  The 
student  will  find  a  good  deal  of  pleasure  in 
working  this  "  study"  out.  The  trees  should 
be  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the  vines,  and 
should  be  open  headed,  or  made  so  by  pruning. 
Trees  already  planted  may  be  adopted,  however, 
if  they  are  suitably  located.  The  soil  should 
have  a  thorough  preparation;  the  vines  must 
be  planted  some  five  or  six  feet  from  the  trees, 
and  brought  to  them  by  bedding.  There 
should  be  three  vines  for  each  tree,  except  the 
last,  which  should  have  only  one.  One  of 
these  three  should  form  an  arm  on  the  trellis 
on  the  right  of  the  tree,  another  an  arm  on  the 
trellis  on  the  left,  and  the  third  trained  over 
the  tree.  The  arms  should  be  extended  and 
spurred  in  the  usual  manner.  The  beauty  of 
the  arbor  will  be  enhanced  if  a  vine  is  planted 
at  each  trellis  post,  and  trained  on  a  low  stock 
with  one  or  two  double  spurs.  With  these 
explanations,  the  student  will,  no  doubt,  be 
able  to  work  this  "  study"  out,  and  apply  it 
wherever  the  conditions  are  found. 

Reversed  Horizontal  Arms. — We  present,  in 
Fig.  168,  an  example  of  the  reversed  horizontal 
arm,  in  order  to  give  the  student  a  clearer  idea 


Fig.  108. 


416  American  Gkape  Culture. 

of  tlie  manner  in  which  it  is  formed.  It  is  not 
intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  gradual  length- 
ening of  the  ann,  but  as  particularly  applicable 
to  such  varieties  of  the  vine  as  grow  rankly, 
and  in  consequence  do  not  develop  their  buds 
strongly  on  the  lower  part  of  the  cane.  It  is  a 
very  certain  mode  of  getting  strong  canes  for 
spurs  near  the  stock.  With  the  exception  of 
the  reversal,  the  arms  are  formed  in  the  usual 
way. 


Fig.  169. 

Hinging  the  Vine. — ^This  is  a  very  simple  as 
well  as  a  very  old  practice.  It  consists  in  re- 
moving a  ring  of  bark  from  the  fruit  cane,  just 
below  the  fruit,  or  even  from  old  wood  or  an 
arm ;  but  is  generally  confined  to  the  fruit  cane, 
since  it  renders  the  wood  above  the  incision 
useless.  It  may  be  applied  to  any  fruit-bearing 
tree.     The  operation  is  usually  performed  with 


Ringing  the  Vine.  417 

a  knife,  tliougli  a  peculiar  kind  of  shears  lias 
been   invented,  with  which  it  is   neatly   and 
quickly  done.     Fig.  169  is  a  copy  of  a  fruit  cane 
on  which  the  operation   has  been  performed. 
Two  incisions  are  made  half  an  inch   or  less 
apart,  nearly  an  eighth  of  an  inch  deep,  and 
extending  entirely  around  the  cane.     The  bark 
between  the  incisions  must  be  taken  out  clean. 
If  done  early  in  the  season,  the  bark  will  peel 
off ;  but  on  old  wood  it  becomes  necessary  to 
use  the  knife.     By  this  operation  the  return 
of  the  sap  is  mostly  prevented,  vital  action  is 
intensified  above  the  incision,  and  the  ripening 
process  greatly  hastened.     As   the  result,  the 
berries  are  increased  in  size,  and  ripen  before 
their  natural  time;  but  the  ripening  process,  in 
consequence  of  being  driven  too  fast,  has  elab- 
orated the  juices  of  the  fruit  imperfectly,  and 
the  fruit  is,  therefore,  deteriorated  in  quality. 
In  other  words,  we  have  gained  size  and  earli- 
ness  at  the  expense  of  goodness,  which  is  no 
gain  at  all.     The  deterioration  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  earliness  at  which  the  operation 
is   performed.     It  may   be   done  at   any  time, 
between   the   formation  of  the  fi'uit   and  the 
period  of  coloring ;  the  later  the  better,  so  far 

as  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  concerned.     It  is 

27 


418  AiiERiCAisr  Grape  Culture. 

one  of  those  operations  in  horticulture  which 
the  novice  will  do  well  to  have  recourse  to  only 
as  an  amusement. 

A  Mildewed  Leaf. — The  beginner,  unaided, 
may  not  readily  recognize  the  appearance  of 
mildew.     To  assist  him,  we  have  copied  Fig. 


Fig.  170. 


lYO,  from  Du  Breuil.  This  is  a  leaf  in  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  the  disease,  and  gives  a  very 
good  idea  of  its  apj)earance.  It  should  first 
be  looked  for  in  the  angles  made  by  the  veins 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 

A  Hack  for  Stakes.  —  Stakes  soon  decay 
when  left  on  the  ground  during  the  winter. 
Fig.  171  shows  a  simple  and  convenient  rack 
for  keeping  them. 

''''Heeling  In.'''' — We  have  elsewhere  described 


Heeling  In. 


419 


tlie  operation  of  "heeling  in."     Figs.  172  and 
173  will  llelp  the  reader  to  a  clearer  idea  of  the 


Fig.  171. 


operation.     Fig.  172  shows  the  trench  opened 
and  the  plants   laid  in,   ready  to  be  covered. 


Fig.  172. 


Fig.  173. 


Fig.  173  shows  the  trench  filled  and  the  plants 
covered. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

WIKE  MAKma. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  condense  experience, 
reading,  and  the  memoranda  of  one  of  the  most 
accomplished  connoisseurs  among  us.  A  bib- 
liography will  be  furnished  elsewhere. 

Wine  making  is  I'egarded  by  some  as  a 
mysterious  art,  to  be  acquired  only  by  a  few 
specially  gifted  for  the  purpose ;  and  by  others 
as  something  that  follows  in  due  course  from 
planting  any  kind  of  grapes,  and  treating  them 
in  some  fancied  manner.  Those  who  follow  us 
through  this  chapter  will  see  that  it  partakes 
of  neither,  but  is  a  manly  art,  very  simple  in 
its  general  principles,  but  exceedingly  attract- 
ive in  its  comprehensive  details  when  pursued 
to  its  ultimate  results.  It  needs  no  extensive 
scientific  acquirements  for  its  successful  prac- 
tice, and  the  following  directions  will  carry 
their  reasons  with  them  so  obviously  that  no 


Wine  Making.  421 

one  need  feel  any  doubt  as  to  the  proper  course 
to  be  pursued  to  reach  a  good  result ;  the  best 
results,  however,  will  only  be  attained  by  the 
utmost  diligence  and  care. 

The  good  housewife,  who  makes  the  best  of 
bread,  exercises  as  much  skill,  and  of.  as  fine  a 
quality,  as  is  required  to  make  the  best  of 
wine  ;  and  in  both  cases  there  are  few  who  are 
able  to  appreciate  fully  the  excellence  either  of 
the  product  or  the  maker.  The  illustration 
may  be  homely,  but  a  better  one  could  scarcely 
be  found.  A  loaf  of  bread,  perfectly  balanced 
in  farina  and  gluten,  neither  too  moist  nor  too 
diy,  exact  in  lightness,  with  its  fermentation 
carried  to  just  the  proper  point  of  sweetness, 
is  a  work  of  high  art ;  nay,  practically,  of  the 
highest  art,  for  it  is  the  foundation  upon  which 
happy  and  healthful  living  is  built.  It  will 
not  do  to  say  that  this  is  an  every-day  per- 
formance, for  it  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  More- 
over, no  matter  what  the  skill  and  experience 
of  the  housewife  may  be,  she  must  have  good 
flour  to  make  the  best  of  bread.  And  it  is  just 
so  with  wine.  No  matter  what  the  skill  and 
experience  of  the  ^vine  maker  may  be,  he  must 
have  good  grapes  to  make  good  wine,  and  the 
hest  of  grapes  to  make  the  best  of  wine. 


422  American  Grape  Culture. 

"Wine  making  is  so  new  in  tliis  country  that 
its  gi'and  simj)licity  can  scarcely  be  conipre- 
liended  by  any  of  us.  While  chemistry  has 
done  much  in  explaining  the  action  of  the 
different  processes,  it  has  done  very  little  in 
directing  how  the  operations  should  be  per- 
formed. The  only  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
uniform  success  in  wine  making,  either  for 
family  use  or  commerce,  is  that  of  persuading 
all  to  begin  the  subject  at  the  beginning,  and 
then  pursue  it  in  due  order.  Some  will  j^ersist 
in  efforts  to  make  good  bread  out  of  bad  flour, 
just  as  others  "will  persist  in  efforts  to  make 
good  wine  out  of  bad  grapes. 

For  the  first  step  toward  obtaining  good 
wine,  directions  were  given  when  we  advised 
the  planting  of  good  grapes.  That  is  the  only 
step  that  leads  in  the  right  direction.  Good 
wine  can  come  only  from  the  pure,  unadulter- 
ated juice  of  good  grapes  that  have  been  well 
ripened.  The  succeeding  steps  have  also  been 
fully  described,  but  it  may  be  intimated  again, 
in  view  of  its  imj^ortance,  that  the  bunches 
should  be  left  on  the  vine  to  attain  the  great- 
est measure  of  maturity  that  is  possible,  even 
to  the  deoree  of  shrivelino;  iu  some  cases.  A 
slight  frost  will  not  damage  them.     The  grapes 


WiisrE  Making.  423 

sliould  not  be  gathered  wlieu  covered  with 
dew  or  moisture.  The  bunches  should  be 
gathered  without  bruising  them,  using  the 
scissors  before  mentioned,  and  the  baskets  or 
tubs  usually  made  for  the  purpose.  The 
assorting  must  be  done  with  the  utmost  care, 
as  elsewhere  described.  We  repeat,  none  hut 
sounds  tlioroiiglily  ripe  berries  must  go  into 
the  wine  press. 

The  implements  used  in  wine  making  are  not 
numerous,  and  consist  princi2:>ally  of  tubs, 
crushers,  j)ress,  casks,  vats,  saccharometer,  ther- 
mometer, siphon,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  made  for 
the  pm'j)ose,  and  are  readily  bought. 

There  is  one  item  largely  concerned  in  the 
manufacture  of  good  wine,  which,  to  save  repe- 
tition, must  be  insisted  upon  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  that  is,  the  most  scrupulous  cleanli- 
7iess^  as  respects  the  vessels,  persons,  and  every 
operation  performed.  Those  who  reflect  that  a 
beverage  is  to  be  made,  the  goodness  of  which 
depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  its  delicacy 
and  purity,  will  at  once  recognize  the  absolute 
necessity  of  this.  Wine  of  high  character  de- 
pends for  its  excellence  upon  fine,  pure,  deli- 
cate flavors,  and  these  are  marred  or  destroyed 
by  want  of  cleanliness  and  the  introduction  of 


424  American  Grape  Culture. 

foreign  substances,  or  by  suffering  any  ijiing 
whatever  but  the  juice  of  good  ripe  grapes  to 
enter  the  must.  Wine  making  is  a  careful, 
painstaking  business,  in  which  persistent  and 
conscientious  well  doing  and  right  doing  are 
munificently  rewarded. 

The  Cellar. — The  cellar  is  of  much  impor- 
tance where  wine  making  is  largely  pursued. 
It  must  necessarily  be  modified  more  or  less 
by  the  location  in  which  it  is  built.  There  are 
three  leading  objects  to  be  attained,  and  these 
are  pretty  nearly  of  equal  importance :  first, 
a  considerable  degree  of  evenness  of  tempera- 
ture, which  is  best  secured  by  sinking  the  cel- 
lar in  the  ground,  and  building  the  walls  hol- 
low. Second,  freedom  from  wetness,  which  is 
secured  by  selecting  a  dry  spot  for  the  cellar, 
and,  where  this  can  not  be  fully  secured  in  this 
way,  laying  the  walls  in  cement,  and  grouting 
and  cementing  the  bottom.  Third,  ventilation, 
the  means  for  which  should  be  placed  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  cellar,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  temperature  can  be  altered  gradually  when 
necessary,  sudden  changes  being  hurtful.  The 
cellar  may  be  built  over  or  not  with  rooms, 
offices,  etc.,  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  own- 
er.    The  lower  tier  of  casks  should  rest  upon 


Wine  Making.  425 

cradles,  and  be  elevated  from  six  to  twelve 
inclies  above  the  floor  of  the  cellar.  Under 
certain  circumstances  carbonic  acid  gas  will 
accumulate  in  the  cellar  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  be  detrimental  to  health.  This  must  be 
provided  against  by  careful  ventilation. 

Casks. — Large  casks,  for  very  good  reasons, 
are  generally  claimed  to  be  better  than  small 
ones.  They  are  not  only  more  economical,  but 
a  large  body  of  wine  will  ferment  more  per- 
fectly than  a  small  one.  Still,  we  can  not  do 
without  small  casks,  and  their  size  must,  there- 
fore, be  regulated  by  circumstances.  They 
should  be  made  of  well-seasoned  oak,  and  fin- 
ished smooth  inside  and  out  to  facilitate  clean- 
ing. When  new,  they  should  be  soaked  for  a 
week  or  so  in  water,  and  then  rinsed  with  hot 
water,  to  sweeten  them ;  or  they  may  be  washed 
with  lime  water,  and  rinsed.  They  should 
never  be  used  except  when  perfectly  clean. 
If  hot  water  will  not  cleanse  them,  they  may 
be  washed  with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid.  First  put  the  acid  in  cold  water,  pour 
this  in  the  cask,  and  then  add  the  hot  water. 
After  being  well  shaken,  the  cask  should  be 
thoroughly  rinsed  with  cold  water.      This  is 


426  American  Grape  Culture. 

used  in  France,  and  is  liigbly  recommended  by 
those  who  have  tried  it. 

Bottles. — Bottles  should  be  made  of  glass 
sufficiently  tough  to  withstand  considerable 
pressure.  The  style  is  very  much  a  matter  of 
taste.  They  should  be  thoroughly  clean.  Shot 
are  often  used  for  cleaning ;  but  they  are  not 
safe,  as  the  lead  washes  off.  Clean  coarse  sand 
has  been  found  to  be  equally  good,  and  free 
from  objection. 

Color  of  Wines. — ^The  color  of  wines  is  in 
some  measure  an  index  of  certain  properties, 
but  affords  no  indication  of  quality.  The  col- 
orino;  matter  resides  in  and  near  the  skin,  and 
consists  of  various  extractive  matters,  which 
impart  flavor  and  characteristics  that  are  prized 
by  some,  but  which  are  neither  agreeable  nor 
wholesome  to  others.  White  wines  have  a 
purity  as  well  as  an  animation  that  never  be- 
lono;s  to  the  red.  It  should  be  observed  that 
high  color  is  often  used  as  a  mask  for  adultera- 
tion. There  is  an  unfounded  prejudice  in  favor 
of  the  quality  of  red  wines  that  is  largely  taken 
advantage  of  by  makers. 

Wines  are  often  colored  with  elderberries, 
beets,  Brazil  wood,  and  other  substances  not 
so   innocent ;    but  the  best   color  is   tlie   nat- 


WmE  Making.  427 

ural  one,  or  tliat  obtained  from  tlie  coloring 
matter  adjacent  to  and  in  the  skin  of  the  grape. 
This  is  obtained  by  cuvage,  or  fermentation  on 
the  skins.  If  the  juice  is  pressed  before  fer- 
menting in  this  way,  the  wine  will  be  white, 
no  matter  what  the  color  of  the  grape  may  be. 

Fining  or  Clarifying. — Wines,  particularly 
the  diy,  usually  clarify  themselves,  the  impmi- 
ties  gradually  falling  to  the  bottom  when  fer- 
mentation ceases.  Isinglass  and  other  sub- 
stances are  used,  but  albumen  or  the  whites  of 
eggs  will  answer  the  purpose  well.  The  whites 
of  three  or  four  eggs  will  usually  be  sufficient 
for  forty  gallons  ;  some  use  more,  but  this  num- 
ber is  generally  enough.  The  whites  should 
be  "  beaten  up,"  mixed  with  some  water  or 
wine,  and  pom^ed  in  the  cask,  the  wine  being 
well  stirred  up.  It  should  be  used,  if  at  all, 
after  the  second  fermentation. 

Several  preliminary  operations  should  here 
be  noticed. 

Stemming. — This  is  done  by  hand,  or  l^y 
drawing  the.  bunches  through  teeth  attached 
to  a  grooved  board,  the  purpose  of  the  grooves 
being  to  convey  to  the  tub  the  juice  that  flows 
from  the  bruised  berries.  Stemming  is  so  much 
a  matter  of  circumstance  that  no  general  rule 


428  American  Geape  Cultuee. 

for  it  can  be  given.  In  some  cases  wines  are 
found  to  be  better  witli  a  small  portion  of  tlie 
stems  in  the  marc ;  in  many  red  wines  they  are 
not  at  all  admissible ;  while  in  most  white  wines 
they  are  either  admitted  entire,  or  with  only 
the  larger  branches  removed.  In  making  Jo- 
hannisberger  the  stems  are  all  carefully  re- 
moved, while  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  best 
French  white  wines  they  are  admitted  entire. 

Crushing  may  easily  Ije  done  by  hand  in  a 
tub,  where  not  more  than  a  barrel  full  is  want- 
ed; but  any  way  will  do  that  crushes  the  ber- 
ries without  breaking  or  bruising  the  seed. 
Rollers  like  those  used  by  grocers  for  crushing 
sugar,  only  channeled,  will  answer  the  purpose. 
In  Europe  it  is  sometimes  done,  even  on  a 
large  scale,  by  trampling  with  the  feet.  It  may 
be  well  and  quickly  done,  however,  by  the  press 
mentioned  below,  being  careful,  however,  to  so 
set  it  as  not  to  crush  the  seed. 

Pressing  should  be  done  with  a  press  that 
has  neither  copper  nor  lead  about  it.  Presses 
are  made  for  the  puipose,  but  a  very  good  one 
is  the  cider  and  wine  press  now  so  common, 
which  may  be  bought  of  any  convenient  size. 
Directions  for  use  accompany  each.  Only  one 
pressing  should  be  put  in  the  same  cask  when 


Wine  Making.  429 

the  finest  and  most  delicate  wine  is  wanted. 
The  juice  that  runs  from  the  marc  by  its  own 
weight  is  called  the  "  first  running,"  and  what 
is  really  the  "  first  pressing "  is  the  "  second 
running."  It  is  not  safe  to  mix  different  kinds 
of  must,  unless  they  are  all  good  ;  when  this  is 
the  case,  one  may  be  used  to  impart  flavor  or 
color  to  another,  or  for  some  similar  purpose. 
In  pressing,  the  marc  becomes  hard,  and  forms 
what  is  called  "  cheese."  This  is  cut  down  at 
the  side  from  time  to  time,  and  the  parings 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  "  cheese  "  for  farther 
pressing,  so  as  to  secure  all  the  juice  possible. 

Racking. — Its  object  is  to  transfer  the  wine 
from  one  vessel  to  another  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  the  access  of  air,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  disturb  the  lees  which  have  settled  at  the 
bottom.  There  are  various  contrivances  for  do- 
ing this,  some  of  which  are  expensive  ;  but  if 
bought,  directions  for  their  use  accompany  them. 
In  Europe,  Hilton's  is  thought  to  be  one  of  the 
best.  While  the  wine  is  running  at  the  bot- 
tom, air  must  be  admitted  gradually  at  the  top 
or  bung,  or  the  disturbance  will  be  so  great  as 
to  muddy  the  wine.  The  siphon,  however,  is 
often,  used,  and  it  is  both  simple  and  good.  It 
is  only  a  tube  with  arms  of  unequal  length. 


430  Americajst  Grape  Culture. 

Some  are  made  witli  a  side  pipe  for  starting 
the  flow.  When  plain,  it  is  first  filled  with 
wine,  the  short  arm  put  into  the  cask  to  be 
emptied,  and  the  long  arm  into  the  cask  to  be 
filled,  which  should  stand  lower  than  the  first. 
When  the  siphon  is  filled,  the  finger  must  be 
held  over  the  hole  in  the  Ions;  arm  till  the  si- 
j)hon  is  inserted  into  the  cask.  Those  who  make 
wine  on  a  large  scale  will,  of  course,  purchase 
the  apparatus  made  for  the  purpose. 

Wines,  briefly,  are  principally  of  two  kinds, 
dry  and  sweet.  In  dry  wines  the  sugar  and 
acids  are  so  nicely  balanced  that  neither  seems 
to  ]3redominate.  In  sweet  wines  the  sugar  is 
in  excess,  and  some,  like  Sherry  and  Madeira, 
may  be  called  spiiituous  or  alcoholic  wines. 
Sparkling  wines  partake  more  or  less  of  the 
nature  of  both.  Dry  wines  are  the  best,  and 
the  only  ones  that  are  suitable  for  daily  use,  to 
invigorate  and  refresh  the  body  and  mind. 

"With  a  view  to  make  the  details  more  read- 
ily intelligible,  we  j^i'opose  first  to  describe  the 
process  of  wine  making  in  its  simplest  form. 

After  stemming  (if  done)  and  crushing,  put 
the  "  marc "  into  a  tub  or  any  convenient  ves- 
sel, and  place  it  where  a  pretty  equable  tem- 
perature may  be  maintained,  not  falling  below 


Wine  Making. 


431 


sixty -five  degrees  ;  a  rauge  between  seventy 
and  eighty  A\'ill  ])e  very  good.  Cover  the  ves- 
sel with  a  cloth  that  will  not  admit  insects; 
and  for  further  safety,  boards  may  be  put  over 
the  cloth,  with  an  inch  or  two  of  space  between 
them  for  the  admission  of  air,  which  the  cloth 
will  permit  with  sufficient  freedom.  Crash 
cloth  is  very  good  for  this  purpose. 


Fig.  174. 


Fermentation  will  begin  about  the  third  day, 
or  soon  after,  which  may  be  ascertained  with- 
out uncovering  by  placing  the  ear  near  one  of 
the  spaces  between  the  boards.  After  this  has 
continued  actively  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  the  free  juice  may  be  drawn  off  through 


432  American  Grape  Culture. 

a  cock  prepared  for  tBe  purpose,  (as  seen  at  a, 
Fig.  174,)  and  put  into  a  cask.  The  remaining 
"  marc "  must  be  pressed  immediately,  so  that 
the  juice  may  be  put  at  once  with  the  first. 
The  cask  should  be  of  such  size  as  to  be  filled 
without  taking  all  the  juice,  some  being  left  for 
filling,  from  time  to  time,  the  vacancy  that  will 
be  continually  forming  in  the  cask  in  conse- 
quence of  the  slow  fermentation,  which  will 
continue  for  a  length  of  time  proportioned,  in 
some  degree,  to  the  strength  of  the  must,  and 
also  to  the  temperature.  When  the  fermen- 
tation has  so  far  abated  that  a  bung  may  be 
di'iven  tight  without  causing  pressure  from  the 
collection  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  cask,  the  wine 
may  be  said  to  be  made,  although  a  second  fer- 
mentation will  be  necessary  for  its  completion. 
After  the  first  fermentation'  has  ceased,  and 
the  wine  become  clear,  which  will  not  be  later 
than  January,  it  should  be  drawn  off  from  the 
lees,  and  put  into  a  cask  of  proper  size,  which 
must  be  filled  quite  full.  The  second  fermen- 
tation may  be  expected  to  occur  about  the  fol- 
lowing June,  or  as  soon  as  the  heat  becomes 
sufficient  for  its  excitement,  and  will  continue, 
if  the  must  be  rich,  during  most,  if  not  all,  of 
the  summer.      In  the  following  winter,  after 


Wine  Making.  433 

the  second  fermeutatiou  has  ceased,  the  com- 
pleted wme  may  be  drawn  off  and  bottled, 
when  it  is  7iew  wine,  and  ready,  as  such,  for 
use. 

This,  in  brief,  is  the  history  of  wine  making 
m  its  most  simple  form :  a  plain  statement  of 
the  processes  without  any  attempt  at  explana- 
tion by  theory;   and  a  general  statement  of 
what  is  known  of  the  chemistry  of  wine  making 
is  quite  as  smiple.     The  sugar  of  the  grape,  by 
a  chemical  action  called  mnous  fermentation,  is 
converted   into   alcohol,  setting   free    carbonic 
acid,  which  escapes  into  the  aii-  in  the  form  of 
gas,  while  the  former  remains  dissolved  in  the 
water  of  the  grape  with  the  other  constituents, 
chiefly  unchanged.     What  fei-mentation  itself 
is,  is  quite  another  question.      If  the  vinous 
fermentation  were  perfect,  every  one  hundred 
parts  of  the  sugar  would  be  converted  into 
51-11  parts  of  alcohol  and  48-89  parts  of  car- 
bonic acid.     The  action  of  the  ferment  depends 
for  its  force  upon  the  rapid  absorption  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  without  which  it  can  not 
take  place. 

Two  modes  of  fermenting  are  practiced,  above 
and  heloiu.  In  the  fii-st,  the  cask  is  kept  full, 
so  that  the  yeasty  parts  flow  out  at  the  buno- 

28  ^' 


434  American  Grape  Culture. 

In  the  secoud,  a  small  vacant  space  is  left  at  the 
top,  and  tlie  apparatus  of  Gervais  is  used,  or  a 
sandbag,  or  something  similar,  laid  over  the 
hole ;  in  which  case  the  sediment  sinks  to  the 
bottom  when  fermentation  ceases.  The  appa- 
ratus of  Gervais  is  seen  in  Fig.  174.  In  the  en- 
graving the  cask  is  represented  as  standing  on 
one  end,  this  position  being  necessary  to  se- 
cure the  advantao;es  of  its  fixtures ;  l3ut  ordi- 
narily  it  rests  on  the  side  in  a  "  cradle "  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose.  The  outlet  of  the  cock 
is  covered  at  h  with  a  perforated  diaphragm, 
to  prevent  the  settlings  from  running  off  with 
the  wine. 

In  wine-making  countries  the  must  fi'om  rich, 
well-ripened  grapes  goes  through  fermentation 
so  surely  that  acetous  fermentation  is  not  feared. 
There  are,  however,  large  quantities  of  grapes 
grown  from  kinds  that  are  not  rich,  and  not 
calculated  for  making  good  wine,  but  which 
will  make  poor  light  wine  in  such  quantity  as 
to  yield  a  valuable  return,  if  it  can  be  done  with- 
out vinegar  fermentation.  In  veiy  bad  seasons, 
the  best  kinds,  from  imperfect  ripening,  fall  into 
the  same  defective  condition  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree.  Overcropping  and  premature  cropping, 
there  as  here,  are  constantly  producing  their 


WmE  Making.  435 

disastrous  effects,  wliicli  are  always  shown  in 
weakness  of  must.  These  musts  will  not  bear 
the  freedom  of  treatment  that  is  not  only  safe, 
but  advantageous  to  those  of  better  quality. 
If  some  restriction  is  put  upon  the  admission  of 
atmospheric  air  during  fermentation,  its  violence 
is  abated  in  some  degree,  and  the  danger  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  instead  of  wine  is  lessened 
in  the  same  proportion.  Uj^on  this  the  inven- 
'tion  of  Mile.  Gervais  is  founded.  The  l3ent  tube, 
with  its  mouth  under  water,  j^ermits  the  escape 
of  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  at  the 
same  time  keeps  the  surface  of  tlie  wine  covered 
with  it,  and  excludes  the  atmospheric  air.  On 
trial,  however,  the  apparatus  was  found  to  have 
so  little  practical  value,  that  it  has  been  gene- 
rally laid  aside  in  Euroj)e.  It  has  been  used 
here  pretty  extensively  in  fermenting  the  must 
of  the  Catawba  and  other  grapes,  but  with  what 
benefit  does  not  appear. 

A  more  recent  question  is,  whether  entirely 
free  or  partially  closed  fermentation  is  most  ad- 
vantageous for  rich  musts,  and  this  is  now  gen- 
erally settled  in  ftivor  of  the  latter,  whicli  is 
usually  conducted  in  pretty  large  vessels  set  on 
end,  with  a  movable  outer  cover,  and  an  ad- 
ditional inner  cover,  as  seen  in  Fig.  174.    With- 


436  American  Grape  Culture. 

out  going  into  detail,  the  rule  may  be  briefly 
stated  tlius :  ricli  musts  are  benefited  by,  and 
even  require,  a  freer  admission  of  air  and  a  high- 
er temperature  than  light  and  meager  musts  can 
endui'e.  Thorough  fermentation  is  indispensa- 
ble for  making  wholesome  wine ;  not  necessa- 
rily the  conversion  of  all  the  sugar  into  alcohol, 
but  the  conversion  or  deposition  of  all  the  yeast 
or  ferment  with  which  the  must  is  charged. 
This  is  one  of  the  prime  conditions  of  that 
"  fineness"  which  is  so  essential  for  health  as  well 
as  enjoyment,  that  it  may  be  said  that  no  wine 
can  be  good  without  it. 

The  temperature  under  which  fermentation 
takes  place  actively,  ranges  from  about  sixty- 
five  to  one  hundred  degrees,  and  the  quantity 
of  sugar  decomposed  decreases  as  the  tempei'a- 
ture  falls  below  seventy  ;  in  other  words,  thor- 
ough fermentation  requires  at  least  seventy 
degrees  of  temperature.  When  it  is  much 
above  eighty,  there  is  danger  that  fermentation 
will  go  on  too  rapidly,  even  to  the  destruction 
of  the  wine,  if  the  must  is  not  rich  in  sugar, 
and  also  free  from  the  destructive  elements 
that  belong  to  unripeness  in  the  fruit. 

Wine  has  heretofore  been  commonly  treated 
of  as  something  without  life,  indeed,  but  unlike 


Wine  Making.  437 

any  mere  mixture,  aud  yet  not  a  cliemical  com- 
bination. Dr.  Guyot,  however,  speaks  of  it  as 
"a  tiling  of  life,  wliich  lias  youtli  and  man- 
hood, old  age  and  decrepitude."  A  late  Frencli 
writer,  M.  Pasteur,  attributes  all  tlie  changes 
which  the  juice  undergoes  by  fermentation  to 
living  action,  and  bases  his  discoveries  upon 
apparently  good  microscopic  revelations.  In 
this  country,  a  similar  view  was  taken  of  the 
subject  by  Prof  Gardiner  some  fifteen  years 
ago.  It  is  a  question  of  cause  and  effect,  which 
can  only  be  determined  by  the  most  careful 
microscopic  investigations.  We  shall  adhere 
to  established  formulas,  but  propose  to  recur 
to  these  discoveries  hereafter. 

We  have  given  the  reader  a  general  idea  of 
the  processes  by  which  good  grapes  are  made 
into  mne;  l^ut  there  are  minor  details  of  no 
little  importance  that  claim  our  attention. 

After  the  grapes  are  assorted,  every  opera- 
tion should  proceed  rapidly.  The  stemming 
should  be  done  speedily,  as  also  the  crushing, 
and  immediately  thereafter  the  pressing,  unless 
Ave  have  in  view  fermentation  of  the  "  marc," 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  fermentation  on 
the  skins.  For  this  operation  we  need  a  short, 
expressive  term,  and  may  as  well  adopt  that 


438  American  Grape  Culture. 

used  by  the  French,  cuvage^  so  called  from 
the  vessel  in  which  it  is  done ;  literally,  tub- 
bing. Whether  immediate  pressing  or  cuving 
is  to  be  adopted  will  depend  mainly  upon  the 
character  of  the  grapes  and  the  color  of  the 
wine ;  for  it  is  from  tlie  coloring  matter  in  and 
adjacent  to  the  skins  that  the  wine  derives  its 
color.  When  a  white  wine  is  to  be  made  from 
colored  grapes,  the  skins  should  not  be  ferment- 
ed. The  rule  may  be  stated  in  general  terms 
as  follows :  kinds  that  yield  light  musts  do  not 
require  or  admit  of  cuvage,  and  even  in  lai'ge 
casks  must  be  treated  witk  care,  both  as  to  the 
fi'ee  admission  of  air  and  the  temperature  of  the 
cellar.  Those  kinds  only  are  benefited  by  cu- 
vage that  have  rich  and  pure-ilavored  skins,  and 
yield  a  must  of  great  general  richness ;  and  these 
are  benefited  also  by  a  pretty  free  admission  of 
air.  Fermentation  in  casks  is  always  safe,  and 
should  always  be  resorted  to  in  cases  of  doubt. 
If  any  of  our  "  foxy"  kinds  are  fermented  on  the 
skins,  the  odor  appears  in  the  wine  stronger,  if 
possible,  than  in  the  fruit.  The  Concord  is  bad 
enough  in  this  respect,  but  Ives's  Seedling  can 
only  be  borne  by  those  whose  sense  of  smell  has 
lost  its  best  points  of  discrimination.  Cuvage  is 
admissible  with  the  Delaware,  probably  also 


Wine  Making.  439 

with  the  Diana,  and  is  highly  advantageous 
with  the  loua.  The  skins  of  the  DeLaware 
have  very  little  decided  character.  Those  of 
the  Diana  have  considerable  aromatic  richness, 
but  are  rarely  without  some  degree  of  their 
characteristic  offensiveness.  The  skins  of  the 
lona  are  pure,  rich  in  aromatic  properties  and 
tannic  and  tartaric  acids,  and  give  the  wine  a 
peculiar  but  beautiful  rose  color. 

The  need  of  expedition  arises  from  the  facd- 
ity  with  which  small  masses  of  the  marc  that 
are  not  immersed  in  the  juice  take  on  acetous 
fermentation.  When  the  marc  is  put  into  the 
tubs,  it  should  be  kept  a  little  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  free  juice  by  a  false  cover  kept  at 
the  proper  depth  by  weights,  or,  better,  by  fas- 
tenings made  for  the  purpose,  as  shown  at  d  in 
Fig.  174.  A  false  bottom  is  also  required,  as 
therein  shown,  and  both  this  and  the  cover 
should  be  made  so  open  by  perforations  and 
crevices  as  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  juice, 
while  the  skins  and  the  more  solid  parts  are 
retained. 

The  Catawba  is  not  fermented  on  the  marc, 
and  can  not  be  successfully  managed  in  the 
manner  described.  Its  juice  has  very  rarely 
any   margin   of   alcoholic   richness   above   the 


440  .;.A-M%iCAN  Grape  Culture. 

point  that--  ia/.'^afe  from  acetous  fermentation 
wlien  managed  witli  tlie  utmost  care  in  tlie 
best  of  cellars  after  immediate  pressing.  It 
may  be  stated  here  that  very  little  still  Cataw- 
ba wine,  entii'ely  free  from  adulteration  by  sugar 
at  least,  finds  its  way  into  the  general  market ; 
a  great  proportion  of  that  which  professes  to 
be  pure  is  rather  a  sirup  than  wine. 

After  crushing^,  the  marc  is  taken  immedi- 
ately  to  the  press.  A  considerable  portion  of 
juice  runs  off  before  any  pressure  is  made. 
This  is  called  "first  running,"  and  is  carefully 
tested  by  the  saccharometer,  and  the  degree 
noted  before  putting  it  into  the  large  casks  for 
fermentation. 

When  pressure  is  made,  the  juice  takes  an- 
other grade,  which  is  also  measured  and  noted, 
and  this  is  called  "  second  running."  This  will 
not  measui'e  so  high  as  the  fir^t.  When  the 
ordinary  press  is  used,  the  pomace,  called 
"  cheese,"  after  receiving  a  strong"  application 
of  the  screw,  is  cut  down  at  the  sides,  and  the 
portion  cut  off  piled  upon  the  toj)  preparatory 
to  the  last  pressing.  This  juice  is  also  tested 
and  noted,  and  is  of  still  lower  grade  than  the 
last  in  sugar,  but  contains  more  tannic  acid. 
This  excess  of  tannic  acid  in  the  Catawba,  al- 


Wine  Making.  441 

though  giving  a  degree  of  acerbity  and  bitter- 
ness to  the  wine,  is  indispensable  to  make  it 
endiu'infr. 

On  comparing  the  degree  of  the  different 
"  runnings,"  an  estimate  is  made  of  the  average 
sugar  of  the  whole ;  and  if  this  is  found  not  to 
be  above  eighty  degrees,  it  is  not  thought  safe 
to  trust  to  its  own  foundation  of  suo-ar,  and 
cane  sugar  is  added  to  the  must  before  fermen- 
tation, and,  of  course,  an  impure  Catawba  wine 
is  the  result.  The  best  Catawba  wine  that  has 
been  made  was  fi'om  must  that  registered  at 
least  ninety  degrees  on  the  average  of  all  ran- 
ino;s. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Cincinnati  the  Catawba 
generally  ripens  early  enough  to  ferment  thor- 
oughly by  the  natural  temperature  of  the  cel- 
lars ;  but  further  north,  along  the  lakes,  artificial 
heat  is  required.  To  exclude  the  action  of  at- 
mospheric air  during  fermentation,  the  appara- 
tus of  Mile.  Gervais  is  used.  (See  Fig.  174,  p. 
481. 

When  the  iirst  fermentation  has  subsided, 
and  the  wine  become  still,  it  is  "  racked,"  or 
drawn  from  the  lees  ;  and  if  much  sediment 
forms  during  the  winter,  it  is  racked  again 
before  warm  weather.     After  the  second  fer- 


442  American  Grape  Culture. 

mentation,  if  every  tiling  has  gone  on  favora- 
bly, the  wine  becomes  clear,  and  does  not  need 
the  operation  called  "  fining." 

Almost  every  maker  of  wine  has  some  pecu- 
liarities of  his  own,  but  all  dry  wines  are  made 
upon  the  same  general  principles.  Let  us  next 
present  an  example  of  making  good  wine  in  a 
small  or  domestic  way.  We  have  some  excellent 
wine  thus  made  from  the  lona.  As  we  Avere  inter- 
ested in  the  proceedings,  we  wall  detail  them  so 
far  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  repeat  them. 
The  object  was  to  test  the  wine-making  capa- 
city of  the  lona  under  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances, and  specimens  were,  therefore,  procured 
from  different  localities,  and  gathered  at  differ- 
ent times,  but  all  north  of  New-York. 

The  grapes  were  crushed  by  hand  and  the 
juice  strained  through  a  cloth,  a  part  of  it, 
however,  having  been  fermented  on  the  skins. 
It  was  then  put  in  clean  demijohns  and  bot- 
tles, and  these  placed  on  a  shelf  in  the  room, 
each  specimen  having  been  first  tried  by  the 
saccharometer,  ((Eschle's,)  and  its  degree  noted. 
All  were  above  eighty-five  degrees,  and  some 
above  a  hundred.  Some  were  reduced  to 
sixty-eight  by  the  addition  of  water.  There 
being  no  proper  facilities  for  maintaining  an 


Wine  Making.  443 

even  temperature,  the  mercury  ranged  from 
sixty-five  to  ninety-five.  In  the  moderately 
rich  must,  fermentation  began  in  about  three 
days,  and  in  the  others  later  in  proportion  to 
tlie  richness. 

Fermentation  lasted  more  than  a  week  in  all 
cases,  and  in  the  richest  more  than  four  weeks. 
The  "  racking"  was  done  by  simply  transferring 
the  wine  very  carefully  from  one  bottle  to  an- 
other. The  progress  was  naturally  watched 
with  deep  interest,  and  notes  made  daily ;  but 
we  present  here  only  the  result,  which  was  in 
every  instance  a  perfect  wine,  varying  greatly, 
however,  in  important  characteristics,  as  these 
were  affected  by  the  different  times  of  gather- 
ing the  grapes  and  by  the  different  localities  in 
which  they  were  grown,  the  first  exercising 
much  the  greatest  influence,  the  last  gathered 
and  ripest  grapes  j)rc)ducing  far  the  richest 
must  and  finest  wine.  These  experiments  de- 
monstrated not  only  that  the  lona  will  make 
excellent  wine  in  this  way,  but  that  the  must 
is  free  from  those  destructive  elements  which 
produce  acetous  fermentation,  a  point  of  great 
weakness  in  most  of  our  native  grapes.  In 
this  way,  small  quantities  of  good  wine  can  be 
made  fi*om  pure,  rich  must  in  an  ordinary  liv- 


444  American  Grape  Culture. 

ing  room,  if  care  is  taken  not  to  let  tlie  tem- 
perature sink  below  sixty-five  at  niglit. 

Let  us  sui)pose,  here,  tliat  this  new  wine  is 
wanted  for  immediate  use,  and  we  may  intro- 
duce tlie  results  of  some  of  M.  Pasteur's  most 
recent  experiments.  They  can  "be  easily  re- 
peated by  any  one.  In  experimenting  for  the 
destruction  of  fungi,  which  he  supposed  to 
cause  the  diseases  of  wine,  he  found  that  they 
were  destroyed  by  heating  it.  His  later  ex- 
periments seem  to  show  that  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  one  hundred  and  fourteen  degrees 
Fahrenheit  is  sufficient  for  the,  purpose.  The 
question  is,  Will  this  injure  the  wine  ?  and  just 
here  is  the  point  we  alluded  to.  According  to 
M.  Pasteur,  it  not  only  does  not  injure  the 
wine,  but  hastens  its  ripening,  producing  in  a 
few  hours  all  the  fine  qualities  that  we  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  expecting  to  come  from 
years  of  careful  keeping  in  good  cellars.  The 
process  is  applicable  to  all  wines,  and  renders 
them,  he  says,  capable  of  long,  if  not  indefinite, 
preservation.  We  suggest,  therefore,  that  the 
experiments  of  M.  Pasteur  be  repeated  on 
Avine  made  in  bottles,  to  hasten  its  ripening ; 
for  it  may  be  that  we  can  have  good  wine  to 
drink  generally  the  first  vnnter,  instead  of  the 


Wine  Making.  445 

second.  It  was  so  in  the  trial  of  the  lona 
above  given. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  obtain  a  fuller  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  of  ^vine  making,  we  pro- 
pose now  to  give  a  connected  summary  of  all 
the  various  processes. 

The  grapes  should  in  all  cases  be  thoroughly 
ripe.  For  making  sweet  wine,  those  that  will 
bear  it  may  be  left  till  they  shrivel  They 
should  be  gathered  when  dry,  since  moisture 
on  them  will  weaken  the  must,  and  our  grapes 
have  generally  no  strength  to  spare.  They  may 
even  be  kept  some  days  in  a  suitable  room. 
They  should  be  cut  with  scissors,  received  in 
suitable  l^askets  or  tubs,  and  carried  at  once  to 
the  cellar  or  house.  They  should  next  be  care- 
fully assorted,  retaining  for  wine  only  those 
that  are  thoroughly  ripe.  The  next  operation 
will  be  stemming,  if  this  is  to  be  done.  As 
soon  as  stemmed,  the  grapes  are  crushed,  either 
in  tubs  or  by  passing  through  the  rollers  of 
the  i^ress.  If  crushed  in  tubs,  these  shoitld 
have  false  bottoms  with  small  holes,  a  faucet, 
and  a  cover,  as  already  described.  When 
cuvage  is  practiced,  the  marc  should  remain 
in  the  tubs  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  when  the  free  juice  must  be  drawn  off 


446  American  Grape  Culture. 

l^y  tlie  faucet  and  tlie  marc  pressed.  The  tubs 
should  be  covered  as  before  directed,  to  keep 
the  skius  below  the  free  juice,  and  exclude  dirt 
and  air. 

The  pressing  is  next  in  order,  and  should  be 
done  immediately  to  prevent  souring.  The 
press  should  be  in  the  cellar,  the  temperature 
of  which  should  be  kept  from  sixtj'-live  to 
eighty,  and  fire  heat  used  if  necessary.  When 
pressing  for  wine  is  done,  Avater  may  be  added 
to  the  skins,  and  the  juice  used  for  making  vin- 
egar ;  or  they  may  be  used  for  making  brandy. 

As  fast  as  pressed,  the  juice  is  jDut  in  casks 
of  suitable  size,  the  larger  the  better,  but  not 
so  large  that  they  can  not  be  filled.  The  ad- 
vantage of  using  large  casks  consists  in  the 
fact,  that  a  large  body  of  must  will  j^i'oduce 
more  heat  than  a  small  one,  and  fermentation 
may,  therefore,  be  carried  on  at  a  lower  temper- 
ature than  would  be  consistent  with  a  small 
body  of  must.  If  the  temperature  of  the  cel- 
lar is  too  low,  it  must  be  raised  by  artificial 
heat.  The  beginning  of  fermentation  may  be 
hastened  by  the  addition  of  warm  must,  in  the 
same  manner  that  we  hasten  or  restoi'e  the  heat 
in  a  hot-bed  by  moistening  it  mth  hot  water. 
When   fermentation  ceases,  the   cask  must  be 


Wine  Making.  447 

bunged  up.  It  will  be  prudent  not  to  drive 
the  buDg  tight  at  first;  for  if  fermentation 
should  not  have  pretty  nearly  ceased,  gas  would 
accumulate  and  burst  the  cask.  It  must,  there- 
fore, be  examined  occasionally.  There  will  be 
some  leakage  or  w^aste  in  the  casks,  and  the 
vacancy  caused  in  this  way  must  be  filled  i\]). 

After  the  first  fermentation  has  ceased,  which 
will  not  be  later  than  Jaiui^',  the  wine  must 
be  "  racked"  off,  or  separated  from  the  "  lees," 
or  settlino-s.  In  doino;  this  the  wine  should  not 
be  exposed  to  the  air,  or  it  will  lose  a  portion 
of  its  spirit  and  aroma  by  evaporation,  if  not 
injured  in  other  respects.  The  flow  of  the 
wine  must  be  stopped  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to 
run  clear.  The  muddy  portion  and  the  lees 
are  put  in  a  separate  cask,  and  generally  dis- 
tilled into  brandy.  If  much  sediment  settles 
during  the  winter,  the  wine  must  be  racked 
ao;ain  before  warm  weather  sets  in. 

About  the  following  May  or  June  the  second' 
fermentation  will  begin,  and  will  continue  a 
greater  or  less  length  of  time,  according  to  the 
richness  of  the  wane.  In  our  best  wines  it  may 
be  expected  to  continue  a  greater  part  of  the 
^inmer.  The  casks  during  this  time  will  need 
watching,  as  the  fermentation  may  in  some  cases 


448  American  Geape  Culture. 

become  so  active  as  to  endaDger  the  cask  by  the 
rapid  accumulation  of  gas,  unless  it  is  allowed 
to  escape.  In  the  following  winter,  after  the 
second  fennentation  has  ceased,  the  wine  will 
be  ready  to  bottle.  In^alch  wines,  however, 
there  are  always  left  traces  of  sugar  and  fer- 
ment, and  in  consequence  a_slow,  insensible  fer- 
mentation will  go  on,  in  some  cases  for  years, 
during  which  the  wine  is  said  to  be  "  ripening." 
We  are  only  just  beginning  to  have  that  kind 
of  wine.  This  insensible  fermentation  may, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  become  active, 
and  should  be  checked,  which  can  usually  be 
done  by  "  racking."  Diy  wines,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, generally  fine  themselves,  and  resort 
need  not  be  had  to  fining. 

Bottling  should'be  done  in  cool  weather,  and 
not  till  fermentation  has  entirely  ceased,  other- 
wise the  bottles  will  be  liable  to  be  broken  by 
the  accumulation  of  gas.  v  The  wine  is  usually 
drawn  from  the  cask  by  a  faucet,  and  passed 
into  the  bottle  through  a  funnel.  (The  bottles 
should  only  be  filled  to  within  a  couple  of  inch- 
es of  the  mouth,  so  that,  when  corked,  there 
shall  be  a  small  space  between  the  cork  and  the 
wine^  The  corks  should  be  of  the  best  descrip- 
tion, and  compressed  at  the  bottom  when  put 


Wine  Making.  449 

in.  Tliey  should  then  be  sealed  by  dipping 
them  in  melted  sealing-wax,  and  placed  upright 
till  the  wax  cools.  The  bottles  should  then  be 
packed  away  in  the  cellar  on  their  sides,  so  as 
to  cover  the  corks,  which  will  prevent  the  accu- 
mulation of  mould.  A  sediment  will  collect 
after  a  time.  If  this  consists  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar, it  may  remain ;  otherwise  the  wine  must 
be  transferred  to  other  bottles,  leaving  the  sedi- 
ment behind. 

Wasting. — Even  in  the  best  of  casks  there  is 
more  or  less  evaporation  of  the  spiiit  and  wa- 
ter of  the  "wine,  which  leaves  a  vacancy  at  the 
toj).  A  vacancy  is  also  caused  by  drawing  off 
poi-tions  of  the  vdne.  This  vacancy  should  be 
filled  within  a  day  or  t^vo.  When  this  can  not 
be  done,  it  is  usual  to  sulphurize  it  from  time 
to  time  by  l3urning  a  sulphur  match.  If,  in 
filling  up,  there  should  be  mould  on  the  wine, 
the  filling  should  be  done  through  a  small  pipe, 
the  end  being  put  under  the  surface.  When 
full,  the  mould  should  be  carefully  removed. 

Use  of  Hushs. — The  husks  are  used  for  va- 
rious purposes,  such  as  making  vinegar,  brandy, 
potash,  etc.  If  used  for  brandy,  they  must  be 
kept  from  the  air,  and  worked  up  with  as  little 
delay  as  jDossible.     The  pomace  or  "  cheese  "  is 

29 


450  American  Grape  Culture. 

mixed  with  water  and  sugar,  again  fermented, 
and  then  distilled.  But  nobody  will  under- 
take to  make  brandy  without  providing  suita- 
ble apparatus  for  the  purpose.  If  vinegar  is 
made,  water  must  be  added  to  the  husks,  which 
nuist  be  stirred  up,  and  fermented  till  vinegar 
appears.  If,  however,  the  husks  are  "  foxy,"  it 
will  be  better  to  press  the  husks  after  water- 
ing them,  and  ferment  the  juice:  there  will 
then  be  less  of  the  "  foxy "  impurity  in  it. 
Potash  is  also  made  from  the  husks,  but  they 
are  probably  quite  as  valuable  for  manure  for 
the  vineyard. 

Sediment  or  Lees. — These  may  be  distilled 
into  brandy  or  made  into  potash.  The  crust 
or  salt  that  collects  on  the  sides  of  the  casks 
is  crude  cream  of  tartar,  and  as  such  may  be 
sold. 

Changes  or  Diseases. — Certain  changes  take 
place  in  wine,  which  are  called  diseases.  What 
is  called  souring  is  the  commencement  of  ace- 
tous fermentation,  which  is  generally  remedied 
by  racking  and  sulphuring.  Weak  or  watery 
wines  are  very  apt  to  sour  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  A  remedy  would  be  to  add  good  wines 
of  greater  strength.  Where  the  disposition  to 
sour  exists,  suddenly  increasing  the  temperature 


Wine  Making.  451 

a  few  degrees  will  give  it  activity,  or,  in  other 
words,  bring  on  active  fermentation.  If  a  wine 
poor  in  sugar  and  rich  in  ferment  gets  stirred 
up,  and  the  temperature  at  the  same  time  in- 
creased, fermentation  will  be  renewed,  and  soon 
pass  to  the  acetous  state  unless  checked.  In 
this  and  similar  cases,  racking  and  fining  should 
be  resorted  to ;  and  this  is  also  the  proper 
course  to  pursue  with  wines  that  are  oily, 
sticky,  or  slimy.  In  the  case  of  mouldy  wines, 
the  mould  should  be  removed,  and  the  ^vine 
racked  and  fined.  This  is  often  caused  by  not 
keeping  the  casks  well  filled.  Cloudiness  or 
TRuddiness  may  be  removed  by  fining. 

M.  Pasteur,  however,  a  distinguished  French 
physiologist,  at  the  instance  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment, has  devoted  several  years  to  the  study 
of  diseases  in  wine,  and  has  arrived  at  conclu- 
sions which  must  be  regarded  as  of  very  great 
im2:)ortance  to  the  wine-making  interests  of  all 
countries.  These  results  may  strike  some  of 
our  readers  as  being  quite  improbable ;  but  ex- 
periments of  a  somewhat  similar  kind  conduct- 
ed by  others  give  a  great  degree  of  probability 
to  M.  Pasteur's  theory  in  regard  to  wines.  We 
can  not  here  do  more  than  give  an  outline  of 
the  theory  as  applied  to  the  diseases  of  wine, 


452  American  Grape  Culture. 

which  is  as  follows :  That  all  the  changes  that 
wine  undergoes  find  theu-  appropriate  cause  in  a 
specific  vegetable  fungus.     Thus,  "  souring  "  or 
"  acetification,"  "  mould,"  etc.,  are  each  produced 
by  a  different  vegetable  parasite  or  fungus,  which, 
if  allowed  to  go  on  to  mature  growth,  will  spoil 
the  wine.     Before  the  germs  of  these  fungi  are 
called  into  active  life,  no  harm  has  been  done, 
according  to  his  theory.     His  remedy  is  l;o  de- 
stroy them  by  heating  the  wine.     For  this  pur- 
pose he  submitted  wines  to  a  degree  of  heat 
reaching  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  de- 
grees ;  but  his  latest  experiments  would  seem 
to  show  that  one  hundred  and  fourteen  degrees 
of  JFahrenheit  are  quite  sufficient  to  insure  the 
destruction  of  Ihe'parasite.     The  question  will 
naturally  arise,  whether  this  degree  of  heat  will 
not  injm'e  the  wine.     M.  Pasteur  answers  it  by 
saying  that,  so  far  from  injuring  the  wine,  it 
(hastens  its  ripening,  and  brings  forth  in  a  few 
hours  those  fine  qualities  that  we  have  been  in 
the  habit  of  expecting  only  from  many  years 
of  careful  keeping  in  good  cellars.!     The  pro- 
cess is  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  wines,  and  ren- 
ders them  capable  of  long,  if  not  indefinite, 
preservation.     There  is  good  reason  to  suppose, 
however,  that  these  fungi  will  make  their  ap- 


\ 


Wine  Making.  453 

pearance  again  if  air  is  allowed  access  to  tlie 
wine  ;  but  then  the  process  is  very  simple,  and 
easily  repeated.  We  commend  this  theory  to 
the  consideration  of  wine  makers,  with  the 
hope  that  the  experiment  may  be  repeated. 
M.  Pasteur's  book  is  embellished  with  many 
fine  microscopic  illustrations,  which  materially 
assist  the  reader  in  comprehending  his  theory, 
and  would  seem  to  throw  additional  light  on 
the  hitherto  inscrutable  mystery  of  fermenta- 
tion. 

Adulterations^  GaUizing^  fitc. — "Wine  is  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  grape:  nothing  more 
and  nothing  less.  When  a  foreign  substance 
is  added  to  it,  it  becomes,  to  that  extent,  some- 
thing else.  The  fermented  juice  of  the  grape  is 
essentially  different  from  the  fermented  juice  of 
any  other  fruit.  The  elements  of  the  grape, 
during  the  process  of  fermentation,  react  upon 
each  other  in  some  mysterious  way  that  de- 
prives the  alcohol  of  its  chief  consuming  and 
destructive  qualities,  and  thus  j)roduces  a 
beverage  that  may  be  safely  and  beneficially 
used -for  strengthening,  invigorating,  and  sus- 
taining the  body,  while  it  gently  exhilarates 
and  cheers  the  mind.  This  is  wine,  pure  and 
simple,  and  pure  and  simple  we  wish  to  keep 


454  American  Grape  Culture. 

it.  The  poetry  of  words  may  surround  it  with 
certain  charms,  but  it  can  make  nothing  more 
of  it.  It  is  one  of  those  productions  of  nature 
which  man  can  not  reproduce  by  any  of  the 
means  at  present  at  his  command,  however 
closely  he  may  seem  to  imitate  it ;  and  it  is 
of  these  imitations,  which  are  all  more  or  less 
hurtful,  that  we  now  propose  to  sj^eak. 

It  will  have  become  very  plain  to  the  reader 
that  we  have  taken  uncompromising  ground 
against  adulterations  in  all  their  various  and 
specious  forms.  We  did  this  many  years  ago, 
after  having  witnessed  their  uniformly  pernicious 
effects,  and  we  have  neither  read  nor  seen  any 
thing  since  to  shake  our  faith  in  simple  purity. 
We  do  not  mean  to  court  popularity  with  any 
class  of  men  at  the  sacrifice  of  our  conscientious 
convictions;  neither  shall  we  forget  our  self- 
respect  by  applying  opprobrious  terms  to  those 
who  may  differ  from  us.  Our  position  is  not 
such  a  bad  one  that  it  needs  bad  arguments  to 
sustain  it.  Notwithstanding,  we  shall  state  our 
convictions  very  plainly,  but  without  mean- 
ing to  offend  any  one. 

There  are  certain  kinds  of  adulterations,  prac- 
ticed especially  in  large  cities,  that  are  so  gener- 
ally recognized  as  being  destructively  poisonous 


Wine  Making.  455 

that  it  is  needless  to  waste  time  on  them  here  : 
those  who  indulge  in  them  are  hopelessly  be- 
yond the  reach  of  argument  as  well  as  the  influ- 
ence of  moral  law.  Th^re  is  another  kind  of 
adulteration,  however,  of  a  more  specious  kind 
that  claims  a  brief  notice.  It  is  very  largely 
practiced,  both  by  those  who  do  not  know  that 
it  is  an  adulteration,  and  by  those  who  do,  but 
who  claim  that  it  is  not  injurious.  We  allude 
to  the  practice  of  adding  sugar  to  the  must,  or 
G^llizing,  as  it  has  more  recently  been  called 
after  Gall,  who  enjoys  the  unenviable  reputation 
of  having  reduced  it  to  a  system.  The  practice 
is  an  old  one,  having  been  in  common  use  for 
the  fabrication  of  so-called  domestic  wines  long 
before  the  days  of  Gall,  Chaptal,  Maupin,  etc. ; 
but  it  was  only  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  and  by  ^low  degrees,  that  men  could 
be  educated  into  marring  the  noblest  of  all 
beverages.  The  "golden  argument"  in  this 
case,  as  in  too  many  others,  alas,  in  the  end 
became  irresistible,  and  the  addition  of  sugar 
to  the  must  of  the  grape  is  now  nearly  as 
common  as  the  addition  of  sugar  to  the  juice 
of  rhubarb  or  the  currant. 

What  Mr.  Gall  has  done  is  simply  to  tell  us 
.  how  much  sugar  or  how  much  water  to  add  to 


456  American  Gbape  Cultuiie. 

weak  or  strong  must,  or  no  must  at  all ;  noth- 
ing more,  notwithstanding  all  the  mystery  that 
has  been  attem23ted  to  be  thrown  around  the 
subject.     In  other  words,  he  has  told  us  how  to 
make  forty  gallons  of  wine  out  of  four,  and 
even  how  to  make  forty  gallons  of  wine  out  of 
no  wine  at  all ;  but  in  all  this  he  has  told  us 
nothing  new.     He  and  his  confreres  have  re- 
duced the  formulas  to  a  tabular  form,  and  j)ub- 
lished  them  to  the  world,  and  to  that  extent 
have  done  what  they  could  to  make  fraud  «n 
exact  ai't ;  for  to  publish  the  formulas  is  only  to 
invite  to  their  general  practice.   It  is  a  pity  that 
the  talents  of  these  men  could  not  have  been 
devoted  to  a  nobler  purpose.     If  we  are  told 
that  in  bad  seasons  the  vintao;e  would  be  most- 
ly  lost  if  some  such  practice  were  not  resorted 
to,  we  reply  that  this  need  not  be  so ;  and  even 
if  it  were,  it  is  better  that  a  few  men  should 
suffer  a  temporary  loss  than  that  many  should 
lose  their  manhood,  and  even  their  souls.     Some 
reader  may  expect  to  find  these  formulas  here, 
but  he  will  be  disappointed.   Their  publication 
has  been  productive  of  nothing  but  evil,  and 
we  do  not  mean  to  multiply  it. 

But    it    is   said   that   some   of    our   native 
grapes  will    not    make   wine   without    sugar. 


Wine  Making.  457 

That  is  very  true ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
they  will  not  make  true  wine  with  it.  They 
are  clearly  not  wine  grapes,  and  that  is  the  best 
that  can  be  said  of  them.  There  need  be  no 
argument  about  that.  It  is  further  said  that 
the  addition  of  sugar  is  not  injurious,  and 
many  argmnents  derived  from  chemistry  are 
adduced  to  support  this  position,  chief  among 
which  is  the  assertion  that  cane  sugar  is  nearly 
identical  with  grape  sugar,  and  potato  sugar 
quite  so,  and  that  the  result  produced  by  fer- 
mentation is  precisely  the  same  in  all. 

This  is  the  little  trians-ular  ars^ument  that 
supports  the  arch.  "Weaken  this  key-stone,  and 
the  whole  stracture  falls  to  the  ground.  Now, 
let  us  look  at  a  few  facts.  Chemistry  itself 
has  much  to  learn  yet,  and  its  formulas  are  by 
no  means  fixed.  What  a  few  years  ago  were 
supposed  to  be  simple  bodies  have  been  dis- 
covered to  be  compound.  The  elements  of  the 
grape  are  not  yet  clearly  and  fully  known. 
Fermentation  is  a  profound  mystery,  and  at 
best  we  only  know  its  most  striking  results; 
the  most  learned  men  are  not  yet  even  agreed 
as  to  how  many  kinds  of  fermentation  there 
are,  and,  of  course,  never  will  be  until  it  is  first 
ascertained  what  fermentation  really  is.     It  is 


458  American  Grape  Culture. 

too  soon,  therefore,  to  say  that  grape  sugar  and 
potato  sugar  are  precisely  identical,  or  to  say  in 
what  manner  the  peculiar  elements  of  the  grape 
react  upon  each  other  in  the  process  of  fermen- 
tation. But  suppose  present  chemical  analysis 
to  reduce  grape  sugar  and  potato  sugar  to  the 
same  elements,  can  we  be  certain  that  we  have 
all  ?  It  is  a  well-known  chemical  fact  that  the 
same  elements  are  sometimes  so  combined  by 
nature  as  to  produce  quite  different  results; 
and  it  is  now  equally  well  known  that  the 
same  element  exists  in  more  than  one  form. 
The  diamond  is  pure  carbon;  yet  we  can  no 
more  make  real  diamonds  from  carbon  than  we- 
can  make  real  wine  from  potato  or  cane  sugar, 
or  bread  from  the  maple.  Aside  from  this, 
however,  we  have  the  highest  authority  for  say- 
ing that  these  sugars  are  not  precisely  identical ; 
and  each  individual,  without  resort  to  chemis- 
try, may  convince  himself  that  they  do  not 
produce  identical  results  by  fermentation.  The 
pure  juice  of  the  grape  yields  a  beverage  that 
produces  an  exhilarating  glow,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  refreshes,  strengthens,  and  satisfies. 
The  sugar  of  the  cane  and  potato  yields  a  bev- 
erage that  stimulates  to  intoxication,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  weakens,  stupefies,  and  depraves, 


Wine  Making.  459 

leaving  an  unnatural  thirst  for  more.  That  is 
precisely  the  difference  between  the  effects  2:>ro- 
duced  by  the  two  beverages,  and  upon  that  dif- 
ference is  founded  oui'  objection  to  the  adulter- 
ation. It  produces  other  evils  by  no  means  of 
a  minor  kind ;  but  these  are  enough  to  condemn 
it.  The  case  might  even  be  put  so  broadly  as 
to  say  that  the  one  gives  rise  to  drunkenness, 
while  the  other  does  not,  and  it  would  by  no 
means  be  difficult  to  prove  it.  We  put  the 
subject  upon  the  broad  ground  of  public  health 
and  public  morals,  and  affirm  that  no  man  has 
a  right  to  conduct  his  business  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  imperil  either.  In  the  name  of  Ameri- 
can wine  making,  we  enter  a  solemn  protest 
against  it. 

But  let  us  look  a  little  further  at  the  subject 
of  Gallizing,  and  see  where  it  leads  us.  It  is 
claimed  that  by  this  method  wine  can  be  made 
from  green  grapes.  We  reply,  that  in  the  same 
way  wine  may  be  made  from  the  stems,  the 
leaves,  or  the  green  wood ;  wine  just  as  good, 
and  in  which  the  taste  shall  not  be  able  to  de- 
tect any  difference.  What  matters  it,  then, 
whether  the  fruit  ripens  or  not  ?  Why  not 
give  our  whole  attention  to  the  production  of 
leaves  and  green  wood,  and  make  wine  as  abun- 


460  Ameeican  Grape  Culture. 

dant  and  cheap  as  water  ?  Wliy  not  ?  Are  we 
coming  to  this  ?  If  so,  then  it  would  be  better 
at  once  to  abandon  the  vine,  and  make  plan- 
tations of  rhubarb,  currants,  and  the  elder. 
But,  in  fact,  why  plant  any  thing  ?  Gallizing 
has  already  produced  its  legitimate  results  in 
the  fabrication  of  wine,  into  the  comj^osition  of 
which  no  portion  of  the  vine  enters.  The  imi- 
tation is  so  well  done  that  the  majority  of  those 
who  taste  it  say  it  is  good  wine.  If  nothing 
but  the  taste  were  concerned,  the  subject  would 
not  be  worth  a  moment's  argument ;  but  it  is 
the  demoralizing  effects  which  follow  the  use 
of  these  beverages  which  should  alarm  us.  ISTo 
man  can  study  these  effects  as  we  have  'without 
feeling  deeply  concerned  for  the  future. 

While  we  have  an  innate  dislike  for  deception 
in  all  its  forms,  we  are  at  the  same  time  jealous 
of  the  character  of  American  wines.  So  long 
as  we  have  grapes  that  will  make  a  pui'e  and 
good  wine,  there  is  no  excuse  for  growing  those 
that  will  not.  There  is  a  higher  motive  than 
mere  gain  underlying  this  question,  in  which 
every  member  of  the  community  is  personally 
interested.  '  We  ask  all,  whether  wine  makers 
or  wine  drinkers,  to  examine  the  subject  in  the 
light  in  which  we  have  put  it ;  to  investigate 


Wine  Making.  461 

the  effects  produced  by  pure  and  by  adulterated 
wines,  and  then  decide,  each  one  for  himself, 
bow  far  he  can  conscientiously'  approve  and 
encourage  the  fabrication  of  factitious  wines. 
We  ask  chemists,  who  feel  jealous  of  theii-  re- 
putation, to  consider,  not  how  cleverly  they 
can  produce  a  fraud,  but  how  surely  they  can 
detect  one.  We  ask  that  science  may  be  made 
the  hand-maiden  of  virtue,  and  not  of  vice. 

CJiampagne,  SpaiMing,  or  Effervescing 
Wines.  —  These  form  a  distinct  class,  their 
s|)arkling  or  effervescing  quality  constituting  a 
well-marked  characteristic. 

Champagne  is  so  called  from  the  district 
of  Champagne,  in  France,  where  many  su]^- 
pose  it  to  be  chiefly  made.  It  has  been 
said,  however,  and  we  believe  with  no  great 
departure  from  the  truth,  that  more  so-called 
champagne  is  made  in  New- York  alone  than 
in  the  whole  district  of  Champagne.  The 
name  is  commonly,  though  erroneously,  ap- 
plied to  any  sparkling  wine.  With  us,  the 
wine  should  take  the  name  of  the  grape 
from  which  it  is  made,  such  as  Sparkling 
Catawba,  Delaware,  lona,  etc.,  and  tLis  has 
already  been  begun. 

The  making   of    what  is  called  champagne 


462  American  Grape  Culture. 

is  sucli  a  complicated  art,  and  requires  so 
much  o-bservation  and  experience,  added  to 
thorough  knowledge,  that  it  is  proposed  tt) 
indicate  only  its  general  principles,  with  a 
view  to  show  what  o^eal  sparkling  Cham- 
pagne wine  is,  and  how  much  more  enjoy- 
ment there  is  in  the  true  than  the  false,  if 
people  could  only  be  induced  to  look  for 
it  where  it  may  be  found. 

In  the  district  of  Champagne,  still  and 
dry  as  well  as  sweet  and  sparkling  wines 
are  produced.  In  the  general  use  of  the  term 
champagne  only  sparkling  wines  are  meant, 
which  are  divided  into  two  classes,  according 
to  the  degree  of  effervescence,  the  more  mod- 
erate being  called  "creaming,"  and  the  more 
active  "  effervescins;  ;"  but  the  s'eneral  term 
sparkling  best  meets  the  popular  idea. 

The  body  or  foundation  of  Champagne 
is  still  wine  of  the  richest  quality  that  has 
undergone  the  first  fermentation.  In  the 
management  of  the  second  fermentation,  a  part 
of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  retained,  and,  under 
great  pressure,  induced  to  form  some  degree  of 
cohesion  with  the  wine,  so  that  when  the  bottle 
is  opened  the  gas  escapes  with  much  less  free- 
dom than  if  it  had  not  been  firmly  imprisoned 


Wine  Making.  463 

in  the  wine.  Science  lias  given  to  this  part  of 
the  art,  theoretically,  a  great  degree  of  exact- 
ness: a  given  amount  of  sugar  converted  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  will  produce  a  certain 
pressure,  which  good  bottles  made  for  the  pur- 
pose are  able  to  withstand.  About  two  atmos- 
j)heres,  or  sixty  pounds  to  the  inch,  are  deemed 
the  lowest  admissible  degree.  This  may  be 
considered  a  pretty  high  pressure,  but  the  bot- 
tles are  made  to  endure  two-fold  more  than  that. 
If  the  j)ressure  becomes  very  much  higher,  the 
bottles  burst ;  if  very  much  lower,  the  wine  lacks 
the  force  of  effervescence  that  is  deemed  so  desir- 
able. Our  present  knowledge,  however,  will  not 
enable  us  to  control  or  precisely  estimate  the 
strength  of  fermentation  from  given  quantities 
of  material,  and  hence  some  loss  will  occur  under 
the  best  management.  After  the  closest  calcu- 
lation has  been  made,  and  the  excess  of  su2:ar 
reduced,  there  will  still  be  much  left  to  experi- 
ment. The  second  fermentation  is  brought  on 
in  warm  rooms,  and  carried  to  the  point  of 
"breaking  some  of  the  bottles.  When  it  is 
jduged  that  fermentation  has  reached  the 
proper  point,  two  methods  are  resorted  to  for 
checking  it:  first,  sprinkling  cold  water  on 
bottles;   the   second,  removing   the  bottles  to 


464  American  Grape  Culture. 

a  cool  cellar.  The  practice,  however,  varies, 
some  taking  the  bottles  to  the  cellar  first,  and 
the  fermentation  room  afterward,  according 
to  circumstances. 

In  the  second  fermentation  there  is  one  nice 
point  to  be  attained  besides  the  proper-  degree 
of  fermentation,  and  this,  to  good  judges  of 
wine,  is  of  the  first  importance.  At  the  end 
of  the  first  fermentation  there  is  always,  in  ricli 
wines,  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar  await- 
ing conversion  by  the  second  fermentation. 
The  "  fineness"  that  is  indispensable  to  excel- 
lence requires  that  this  fermentation  should  be 
carefully  conducted  to  the  proper  point ;  for, 
as  elsewhere  remarked,  pure  champagne  is  wine 
of  the  highest  character  with  the  sparkling 
quality  added.  This  may  be  a  difficult  point 
to  attain,  but  it  is  not  beyond  the  reach  of 
painstaking  skill.  It  is  such  wine  that  some 
have  learned  to  enjoy ;  but  it  is  not  in  demand 
by  the  generality  of  customers  in  this  country, 
and  special  provision  is  therefore  made  for  them 
by  various  additions,  the  chief  of  which  are 
alcohol  and  sugar.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this 
fact,  and  champagnes  for  exportation  are  made 
to  suit  the  tastes  of  various  nations,  the  makers, 
of  course,  having  due  regard  to  their  own  in- 


Wine  Making.  465 

terests.     Tlius  it  is  that  j)ure  Champagne  is  not 
made  for  general  exportation ;  much  of  the  cost 
and  care  consequent  upon  making  it  is  rendered 
unnecessary,  and  the  excellence  for  which  it  was 
praised  has  been  lost  under  the  mask  of  sweeta 
spirits,  and    flavorings.      Under    the   circum. 
stances,  still  wines  of   tolerable  quality,  and 
without   offensive  odor  or  taste,  are  just   as 
good  as  those  possessing  the  richest  qualities, 
since  the  effervescence,  which  has  come  to  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  consideration,  is  not  made 
to  depend  upon  the  natural  sugar  of  the  grape, 
but  solely  upon  that  added  in  the  operation 
called   "working,"   and  the  wines   are   hence 
called  "  worked  wines."    This  "  working,"  which 
consists    in    the    addition  of  prepared  liquor, 
(chiefly   alcohol    and    sugar,)  generally   aver- 
aging from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  enables 
the  makers  to  keep  their  wines  at  nearly  the 
same  quality,  irrespective  of  the  seasons.     In 
other  words,  the  grape   has  much   less   to   do 
with  it  than  skillful  confection. 

The  most  recent  apparatus  for  adding  this 
liquor  in  exact  quantity  is  one  of  the  most  elabo- 
rate and  complicated  pieces  of  mechanism  used  in 
champagne  making.  It  must  take  a  partly 
filled  bottle,  add  just  so  much  liquor,  and  leave 

30 


466  American  Geape  Cultuee. 

just  so  mucli  space  in  the  neck,  and  all  this 
it  does  like  an  automaton.  Besides  this,  there 
are  many  other  kinds  of  apparatus  used  for 
various  purposes,  of  which  a  mere  description 
in  words  would  be  useless. 

We  have  given  but  a  brief  glance  at  this  part 
of  the  subject,  and  can  not  avoid  saying  that  it 
has  been  the  least  satisfactory  part  of  our  labor. 
We  have  not  alluded,  in  this  connection,  to  the 
making  of  sparkling  wines  in  this  country: 
both  the  apparatus  and  the  art,  however,  have 
been  imported.  Our  object  has  rather  been 
to  serve  American  wine  makers  by  showing 
the  difference  between  a  true  and  a  spurious 
Champagne,  with  the  hope  of  leading  the  way 
to  the  formation  of  a  class  who  will  create  a 
demand  for  American  Champagne  in  its  purity. 
We  live  in  the  hope  that  a  better  taste  will  call 
for  sparkling  wine  that,  like  the  best  still  wines* 
will  not  only "  leave  the  head  clear  and  the 
mouth  cool,"  but  also  afford  the  stomach  that 
grateful  refreshment  from  carbonic  acid  and 
pure  wine  that  we  now  look  for  in  vain  except 
in  wines  of  special  importation.  There  are 
many  who  would  pay  liberally  for  such  a 
luxury  if  they  could  learn  its  worth,  and  knew 
where  to  obtain  it. 


Wine  Making.  467 

It  is  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing  here  of  the 
processes  whereby  such  immense  quantities  of 
drink,  called  Champagne,  are  made:  we  have 
said  quite  enough  elsewhere.  It  is  only  another 
phase  of  Gallizing.  The  carbonic  acid  is  added 
by  machinery,  very  much  as  it  is  added  to  soda 
water,  and  it  is  made  nearly  as  cheap.  These 
fabrications  bear  to  pure  Champagne  the  same 
relation  that  Gallized  wine  bears  to  pure  wine. 

We  have  stated  that  there  are  two  classes 
of  champagne,  the  dry  and  the  sparkling.  The 
first  is  the  best.  Of  the  last,  there  are  innu- 
merable brands,  and  two  or  three  grades,  being 
more  or  less  sweet  or  dry,  and  of  these  the 
driest  is  best.  There  is  a  sparkling  brand 
called  "  Consular  Seal,"  imported  by  Tomes  & 
Melvaine,  of  three  grades,  "  dry,"  "  drier,"  and 
"  driest,"  indicated  respectively  by  a  red,  blue, 
and  black  seal.  The  reader  can  prove  for  him- 
self that  the  di'iest  champagnes  are  best  by 
trying  the  "  Consular  Seal,"  which  he  will  find 
to  improve  as  it  gets  drier.  If  he  compares 
the  "  driest "  with  the  common  brands,  his 
head  will  tell  him  the  difference,  if  his  taste 
does  not. 


Israella. 


CONCLUSION. 

Our  labor  of  love  is  now  done,  excej^t  a  few 
words  of  explanation  and  acknowledgment. 
Some  five  years  ago,  in  onr  "  Hints,"  we  prom- 
ised to  write  a  work  on  Grape  Culture,  the 
design  tlien  comprekending  two  volumes,  and 
we  have  been  constantly  reminded  of  it  since ; 
but  circumstances  unnecessary  to  explain  pre- 
vented us,  till  witkin  a  few  weeks  past,  from 
even  beginning  tke  text.  Tke  engravings,  how- 
ever, were  put  in  kand;  but  tkeir  execution 
was  so  unsatisfactory  tkat  tkey  were  tkrown 
aside.  Tkere  is  l)ut  one  man  tkat  we  know 
of  wko  can  make  a  really  trutkful  engraving  of 
tke  wood  of  tke  grape  vine,  and  he  kas  ac- 
quired tke  ability  to  do  so  after  years  of 
training  under  Dr.  Grant.  We  refer  to  Mr. 
Heury  Holton,  wkose  work  is  so  trutkful  and 
spirited  in  execution  as  to  extort  our  praise. 
Tkere  kas  been  notking  done  in  tkis  country  or 
Europe  to  compare  witk  it.     Even  copies  from 


470  American  Grape  Culture. 

the  French,  it'  will  be  seen,  become  new  things 
in  his  hands.  To  Mr.  Holton,  then,  we  had 
recourse ;  but  for  various  reasons  the  engrav- 
ings "  dragged  their  slow  length  along."  They 
might  have  been  hastened  by  coj^ying  and 
transferring ;  but  that  would  not  quite  suit  our 
sense  of  propriety.  We  therefore  applied  to 
Dr.  Grant  for  permission  to  take  electrotypes 
fi'om  some  of  his  engravings,  and  got  more  than 
we  asked  for.  The  answer  came  that  Ave  could 
have  whatever  we  wanted.  It  therefore  be- 
comes our  pleasing  duty  to  make  an  acknow- 
ledgment befitting  such  generous  liberality,  and 
w^e  do  it  very  heartily.  It  may  not  interest  the 
public,  but  it  concerns  us  much  whether  we 
make  use  of  the  proj^erty  of  others  with  or 
without  their  aj^probation.  It  is  thus  that  we 
have  been  enabled  to  illustrate  the  present 
volume  with  the  most  beautiful  vine  portraits 
that  have  ever  been  given  to  the  public,  and 
the  minute  truthfulness  of  which  the  reader 
will  find  of  material  assistance  to  him. 

One  word  more  of  encouraoremeut  to  the  be- 
ginner.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  grape 
culture,  under  proper  conditions,  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  departments  of  horticulture,  and 
may  be  entered  upon  without  misgiving  by  any 


Conclusion.  471 

one  wbo  has  a  suitable  location,  and  will  study 
and  apj^ly  the  conditions  of  success.  We  can 
not  promise,  neither  can  you  expect,  a  full 
measui'e  of  unvarying  success  from  year  to 
year ;  for  grape  culture,  like  all  other  branches 
of  industry,  is  occasionally  liable  to  unfavor- 
able seasons,  and  at  long  intervals  one  that  is 
exceedingly  so,  like  that  we  have  just  passed 
through.  But  even  such  a  season  is  not  with- 
out its  lessons.  We  may  learn  something,  not 
only  of  the  reliability  of  varieties,  but  also  of 
the  value  of  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
and  judicious  training.  It  has  given  us  re- 
newed confidence  in  our  preferences  and  treat- 
ment, for  we  have  heard  of  no  cases  in  which 
similar  treatment  has  been  adopted  in  which 
the  effects  of  the  season  were  not  comparatively 
light ;  and  it  has  furnished  additional  evidence 
of  the  greater  reliability  of  our  best  grapes  as 
compared  with  the  poor  ones.  There  is  nothing 
to  dishearten  in  adverse  seasons  like  the  past; 
for  they  occur  so  rarely  as  to  be  but  little 
feared,  and  less  with  grapes  than  other  kinds 
of  fruits. 

When  we  initiated  the  movement  which  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  American  Pomo- 
logical  Society,  we  had  in  view  a  central  society 


472  American  Grape  Culture. 

wMcli  should  properly  test  new  fruits  iu  refer- 
ence to  theii'  excellence,  healthiness,  and  hardi- 
ness, and  indorse  them  accordingly.  This  duty, 
honestly  performed,  would  have  been  of  incal- 
culable service  to  the  public,  and  made  the 
society  a  great  benefactor  to  the  country ;  but 
it  has  been  overlooked,  and  the  public  must 
still  continue  to  do  its  own  testing  unaided. 
That  the  progress  of  fimit  culture  is  greatly 
retarded  from  a  want  of  this  kind  can  not  be 
doubted;  but  there  is  no  present  helj)  for  it. 
The  grape-grower,  therefore,  in  common  with 
other  fruit-growers,  must  test  for  himself  such 
new  varieties  as  may  from  time  to  time  appear. 
In  regard  to  those  already  before  the  public,  he 
must  select  some  competent  guide  in  whom  he 
may  have  confidence,  and  not  allow  himself  to 
be  be^vildered  and  led  astray  by  a  multitude  of 
advisers.  The  intelligent  amateur  may  try  all 
things,  if  he  can  afford  it,  with  profit  to  himself 
and  the  public ;  but  the  vineyardist,  who  grows 
lai^ely,  will  find  his  greatest  profit  ultimately 
to  consist  in  growing  such  kinds  only  as  are 
kno^vn  to  possess  excellence  of  a  high  standard, 
and  eschewing  all  others;  he  should  not,  in- 
deed, waste  his  time  in  even  testing  any  that  he 
has  not  good  reason  to  believe  possess  such  ex- 


Conclusion.  473 

cellence,  mucli  less  plant  tliose  tliat  are  already 
known  to  be  wanting  in  the  very  characteristics 
which  constitute  a  good  gi'ape.  We  hope  the 
time  for  that  has  pretty  well  passed  by.  To 
this  end,  we  have  given  you  the  results  of  a 
wide  field  of  observation,  as  well  as  the  benefit 
of  many  years  of  experience  devoted  lovingly 
to  the  subject,  with  the  hope,  which  we  trust 
may  not  be  a  vain  one,  that  they  may  be  a  safe 
guide  to  you,  as  well  as  a  source  of  pleasure 
and  profit,  in  all  that  relates  to  the  vine. 

One  word  more  on  this  point.  Having  se- 
lected wisely,  devote  yourself  faithfully  to  the 
study  and  practice  of  those  principles  which  are 
essential  to  success  in  grape  culture.  In  all  the 
pursuits  of  life  success  is  measured  by  know- 
ledge, and  the  use  we  make  of  it.  Fruit  grow- 
ing is  not  an  exception,  however  much  the  fact 
may  be  overlooked.  Too  many  seem  to  think 
that  they  have  only  to  put  trees  and  vines  in 
the  ground,  and  look  idly  on  while  the  fruit 
grows  and  ripens  without  thought  or  care  from 
them ;  nay,  there  are  not  a  few  who  begrudge 
even  the  small  labor  that  is  necessary  to 
gather  the  fruit  as  it  ripens  and  falls.  This 
might,  jDerhaps,  be  borne  if  these  very  men 
were  not  constantly  moaning  over  their  want 


474  American  Grape  Culture. 

of  success,  and  disheartening  the  beginner  with 
the  mournful  cry  that  "  it  won't  pay."  It 
would  be  surprising  if  it  did.  How  can  fruit 
growing  be  expected  to  pay  where  there  is  such 
an  utter  disregard  of  the  plainest  conditions 
which  Nature  has  made  necessary  to  success? 
Fruit  growing  is  a  business,  and,  like  other 
kinds  of  business,  has  its  laws,  which  can  not  be 
disregarded  with  impunity;  but,  unlike  other 
kinds  of  business,  it  must  be  conducted  as  a 
partnership,  Nature  always  being  one  of  the 
partners.  She,  indeed,  is  "  the  head  of  the  firm," 
having  been  so  made  in  the  first  instance  by 
"  Him  who  doeth  all  things  well,"  with  a  prom- 
ise that  she  should  remain  so  "  through  all  the 
ages."  But  this  firm  is  in  no  respect  a  "  close 
corporation :"  all  who  will  may  enter  it.  Na- 
ture receives  each  applicant  with  a  gracious 
welcome,  and  makes  but  one  condition.  She 
opens  her  great  Book  of  Laws,  tells  him  to  read 
them,  and  then  says,  with  an  encouraging  smile, 
"  Obey  these,  and  you  shall  partake  of  our 
pleasures  and  profits :  otherwise,  not."  That  is 
the  contract  we  make  with  Nature ;  and  as  she 
has  never  been  known  to  fail  in  one  of  her 
promises,  we  may  be  sure,  if  we  come  short  of 
the  pleasures  and  profits,  that  we  have  been 


CoNCLusioisr,  475 

wanting  in  the  performance  of  some  duty. 
Tliis  is  tlie  stand-point  from  wliicli  we  must 
view  success  in  graj)e  culture. 

Further  than  this,  as  a  grape  grower,  you  are 
under  certain  obligations  to  the  grape  consumer 
to  give  him  the  best  in  its  best  condition ;  and 
you  owe  it  to  yourself  not  to  regard  the  great 
mass  of  the  peoj^le,  the  "  million,"  as  an  inferior 
and  degraded  class,  incapable  of  any  but  the 
lowest  forn:^  of  enjoyment,  and  for  whom  any 
thing  is  good  enough  that  you  can  induce  them 
to  buy.  That  would  be  a  gross  outrage  and 
insult  to  our  common  humanity.  K  the  masses, 
from  want  of  opportunity,  have  not  yet  attained 
to  the  same  knowledge  of  excellence  in  fruits 
that  you  possess,  remember  that  it  is  only  a  short 
time  since  you  knew  as  little  in  this  respect  as 
they  do  now,  and  esteem  it  a  privilege  to  help 
them  to  the  same  measure  and  degree  of  enjoy- 
ment. Be  assured  that  all  labor  that  tends  to 
the  improvement  of  public  taste  by  placing  the 
good  within  its  knowledge  and  reach  will  meet 
its  appropriate  reward,  not  alone  in  that  which 
makes  rich,  but  also  in  that  exalted  conscious- 
ness of  well-doing  which  riches  can  neither  pur- 
chase nor  take  away.     Attune  yourself  to  the 


476  American  Grape  Culture. 

"  key-note  "  that  runs  through  this  book,  "  Oood 
grapes  for  alV^''  and  do  your  part  to  hasten  the 
day  when  its  vibrations  shall  be  heard  and  felt 
in  every  dwelling  in  the  land. 


D.    H.    HILL   LIBRARY 
North  Carolin-a  State  College 


INDEX 


A. 

p 

Acarus  tellarius, 392 

Action,  vital, 63,  70 

,  ,  should  not  be  checked,..  75 

Adirondac, 164 

Adulterations, 453,  465 

Advke  to  be  sought, 15 

Aiken, 215 

Albino, 212 

Allen's  Hybrid, 176 

,  as  a  wine  grape, 191 

Alvey, 213 

Ale.xander, 211 

American  wine, 6,  420 

Angle,  right,  how  to  make, 31 

Anna, 204 

Anomala  coelebs, 890 

Aphis 392 

Applowing, 343 

Arbors, 184 

Areola  lanigera, 389 

Arms,  beginning  to  form, 60,  70 

,  must  be  formed  gradually,. .  .70,  78 

,  how  to  lay  down, 74 

,  extension  of, 74,  78 

,  in  double  tiers, 86 

,  reversed  horizontal, 151,  414 

,  renewing, 815 

,  opposite,  how  formed, 318 

,  length  of, 821 

,  general  management  of, 322 

Arnold's  No.  1, 222 

Ashes, 28 

Athallage, 57 

,  benefits  of, 63 


B. 


Barnyard  manure  best, 2S 

Baskets, 358 

Bedding, 123, 402, 406,  407 

Beetles, 387 

Beginner,  encouragement  to, 470 

Bitter  rot,    8S3 

Black  Hawk, 221 

Black  rot, 383 

Bland, 210 

Board  fence  as  a  shelter, 17 

Bones, 28 

Bottles  for  wine, 426 

Bottling, •. 448 

Bow  system, 114 

,  improved  form  of, 116 


Boxes, S5S 

Brackett's  Seedling, 217 

Brinckle, 211 

Brown  rot, 383 

Buds,  single,  best  plants  made  from,. .  35 

— ,  ,  how  to  plant, 41 

— , ,  propagating  from, 250 

— ,  double  and  treble, 324 

Bunches,  how  many  on  young  vines, . .  73 

Bullitt  or  Taylor, 203 

Buy,  best  time  to, 51 


Canby's  August, 211 

Canadian  Hybrid, 222 

Carpenter, 222 

Casks, 425 

Cassady, 211 


478 


American  Grape  Culture. 


PAGE 

Catawba, 172 

,  as  a  wine  grape, 194 

group, ITl 

,  comparisonof  quality,  18" 

, ,  comparison  for  table,  187 

,  comparison    for   mar- 
ket  188 

,  comparison  for  wine,  189 

Caterpillars 392 

Cellar  for  wine, 424 

Cellar,  how  to  keep  vines  in, 53 

Champagne, 461 

,  adulteration  of, 465 

Charlotte, 222 

Charmeux,  plan  of, 410 

Charter  Oak, 215 

Checks  injurious, 75 

Child's  Superb, 211 

Christine,  or  Telegraph, 222 

Clara, 211 

Clarifying  or  fining  wines, 427 

Cleanliness  indispensable  in  wine  mak- 
ing,  423 

Climate, 11 

Clinton, 202 

Cloudiness  in  wines,. : 450 

Cockchafers, 8S7 

Coleman's  White 214 

Color  of  wines,  how  obtained, 426 

Compost  heap, 23,  370 

Conclusion, _ 469 

Concord, 161, 195 

,  not  a  wine  grape, 197 

Corail, 215 

Covering  in  winter, 65,  346,  352 

Creveling, 163 

Crushing  grapfes  for  wine, 428 

Cultivation, 340-351 

,  implements  used, 347-351 

Cunningham, 215 

Cuttings,  plants  from  green, S4,  49 

,  how  to  plant, 46 

,  how  to  make  plants  from, . .  .277 

Cut- worm, 395 

Cuvage,  or  fermenting  skins, 438 

Cuyahoga, 214 

Cynthiana, 215 

D. 

Dana's  Seedlings, 219 

Delaware,  179 


PAGE 

Delaware,  compared  with  lona, 1S4 

,  as  a  wine  grape 193 

Deplowing, 343 

Depth  to  plant, 41,  295 

of  soil,  importance  of, 28 

Description  of  varieties, 159-224 

Diana, 174 

as  a  wine  grape, 193 

Diana  Hamburgh, 217 

Direction  of  rows, 29 

Diseases, 374 

Distances  to  plant, 32,  822 

Domestic  propagation, .' 270 

Domestic  wine  making, 442 

Dorr's  Seedling, 221 

Double  horizontal  ar.iis, 63,  70 

,  in  two  tiers,  86 

Double  spurs, 84 

Dracut  Amber, 215 

Drainage  must  be  thorough, 13 

Dry  location  necessary, 13 

Dry  wines, 430 

Dwellings,  vines  on, 136 

• 

Elizabeth, 214 

Elsingburgh, 201 

Emily, 211 

Eudrj'as  grata, 393 

Eumelan, 220 

Eureka 214 

European  grape,  its  failure  here, 223 

Eva, 221 

Exposure, 15 

-,  southern,  best, 16 

,  objects  to  be  attained  by,..  16 

Eyes  or  buds,  how  to  plant, 41 

,  make  the  best  plants, . .  35 

,  how  to  propagate  from,  250 


F. 

Fall  planting, 50 

Fan  system, 153 

Fancher, 217 

Faulty  structure  of  native  grape, 247 

Fence,  board,  as  a  shelter 17 

Fermentation,  definition  of, 433 

•,  first, 431 

,  second, 432 

and  below, 433 


Index. 


479 


Fining  or  clarifying  wines, 427 

Flesh  of  the  grape,  of  what  composed,  239 

Flora, 213 

Fogs, 13 

Force,  vital, C3,  70 

,  should  not  be  checked,...  75 

Foreign  grape,  fails  here, 223 

,  how  ripened, 244 

Framingham, 221 

Fruit,  how  much  on  young  vines, 73 

Fungi  in  wines, 451 

Furrow  slice  should  be  narrow, 25 


G. 

Gallizing, 453 

Garrigues, 211 

Gervais,  apparatus  of, 434 

Goblet  form, 153 

Golden  beetle, 389 

Golden  Clinton 202 

Good  grapes  for  all, 227 

grown  as  cheap  as  bad 

ones, 227 

Grafting, 2S3 

Graham, 212 

Grape  culture,  its  importance, 5,  7 

,  capital  invested  in, .     6 

,  its  commercial  value,. .     7 

,  steadily  increasing, 8 

,  rich    in    pleasure    and 

profit, 9 

,  its    relation     to    wine 

making, 9 

Grapes,  demand  for, 

,  as  food, 225 

,  when  they  are  ripe, 236 

,  of  what  the  flesh  is  composed,  239 

,  faulty  structure  of  native,  . .  .247 

,  how  to  gather, 356 

,  how  to  assort  and  pack, 357 

,  should  be  ripe  when  picked, ..35S 

,  how  to  keep  in  winter, 362 

,  description  of  varieties, . .  159-224 

,  comparison  of  varieties,  .169,  187 

Green  wood,  plants  from, 49 

Ground  training, 411 

Growing  plants  between  the  rows,.. .  .361 

Growth,  rank,  not  desirable, 50,  69 

,  must  not  be  checked, 75 

Guyot's  system, 89 

———.  — — ,  improved, 99 


H. 

Haltica  chalybea, 890 

Harrowing, 345 

Hartford  Prolific, 163 

Hattus  or  Hattie, 221 

Heeling  in, 52,  419 

Herbemont, 207 

Hermitage  plan, 156 

Hidden  causes  of  failure, 14 

Hill  sides  favorite  spots, 14 

Hoeing, 847 

Honey  grape, 213 

Horizontal  arms, 60,  70 

,  in  double  tiers, 86 


Hot-bed,  propagating  single  eyes  in,.  .260 

Houses,  vines  on, 136 

Husks,  use  of, , 449 

Hybridizing, 288 

Hyde's  Eliza, 212 

I. 

Impediments  to  culture, 13 

Implements  used  in  wine-making, 423 

Importance  of  grape  culture, 5,  7 

Insects, 385 

Introduction, 5 

lona, 181 

compared  with  Delaware, 1S4 

as  a  wine  grape, 191, 412 

Isabella, 163 

group, 159 

,  comparison  of,  for  ta- 
ble,  163 

,  comparison     of,     for 

market, 168 

,  not  wine  grapes,  170,  195 

Israella, 165 

,  vine  of, 76 

Ives's  Seedling, 167 

J. 
Jura  plan, ',..118 


Z. 

Kansas  July, 214 

Keeping  grapes  during  winter, 362 

Keuka,  (Neff,) 222 

Kinds  to  buy, 34 

Kinds  of  wines, 430 


480 


American  Grape  Culture. 


L. 

Lateral,  (see  Thallon,) 57 

Laura, 221 

Layers,  how  to  plant, 47 

,  how  to  propagate, 279 

Laying  out  the  vineyard, 29 

Leaf  rollers, 394 

folders, 395 

blisterers, 395 

,  mildewed, 418 

Lees  or  sediment, 450 

Length  of  arms, 321 

Lenoir, 209 

Light  soils,  planting  in, 44 

Lincoln, 209 

Lime, 2S 

Location,  its  importance, 12 

,  must  be  dry, 12 

Logan, 213 

Lorain, 221 

Louisa, 212 

Low  grounds  to  be  avoided 13 

Lydia, 213 


M. 

Macedonia, 221 

Mammoth  Catawba, 212 

Manhattan, 214 

Manures, 23,  370 

,  gross,  injurious, 27 

,  how  to  treat, 28 

,  unfermented,  unsuitable,...  2S 

-,  must  not  touch  the  roots,  41,  50 


PAGE 

Miles, 203 

Miner's  Seedling, 215 

Modena, 221 

Montgomery, 211 

Mottled  Catawba, 213 

Mould  in  wines, 450 

Muddiness  in  wines, 450 

N. 

Native  grape,  its  faulty  structure,... 247 

Neff,  (Keuka,) 222 

Non-manuring, 872 

North  America, 215 

Northern  Muscadine, 215 

Norton's  Virginia, 210 


0. 

Oblique  system, 149 

Opposite  arras,  how  formed, 318 

spurs,  how  formed, 320 

Order  in  the  vineyard, 30 

Overcropping, 825 


Marc, 430 

Marion, 212 

Market,  comparison  of  Isabella  group,  1G8 

,  comparison  of  Catawba  groupjlSS 

Marketing, 356 

• ,  boxes  and  baskets, 35S 

Martha, 219 

Mary  Ann, 212 

Massachusetts  White, 215 

May  beetle, 387 

May's  system  for  covering, 151 

Maxatawny, 214 

McCowan, 212 

McNeil, 212 

Meade's  Seedling, 212 

Melolontha  subspinosa, 386 

Mildew, 3 

Mildewed  leaf 418 


P. 

Pasteur's  experiments, 4S7,  444,  451 

Pelidnota  punctata, 389 

Perkins, 215 

Philamepelus, 393 

Phyllophaga  quercina, 387 

Pinching,  time  to  do  it, 63,  64,74^76 

Plant,  how  deep  to, 41,  295 

— ,  distances  to, 32,  322 

Plants  and  planting, 34 

— ,  best  kinds  to  purchase, ....34,  35 

— ,  best  age  to  purchase 37 

—  from  single  eyes, 34,  250 

^ ,  how  to  plant,  34 


•  from  cuttings, 34,  277 

-,  how  to  plant, 46 


from  layers, 34,  279 

-,  how  to  plant, 47 


from  green  wood, 34,  49 

,  relative  value, 37 

,  how  to  keep  during  winter,    52-55 

,  best  time  to  purchase, 51 

Planting  in  light  soils, 44 

,  spring, 50 

,  fall, 50 

,  additional  remarks  on, 293 

Plowing  stiff  soils, 344 


Index. 


481 


Plowing  mellow  soils, 345 

Poeschel's  Mammoth, 221 

Poudrette, 28 

Preparation  of  soil, 20-27 

Pressing  grapes  for  wine, 428 

Primary  roots, Sil 

Procris  Americana, 394 

Pi'opagation, 249-294 

,  single  eyes  or  buds, 250 

,  under  glass, 251 

,  in  liot-beds, 260 

,  domestic, 270 

,  single  eyes  in  open  air, ..275 

— — ,  cuttings, 277 

,  layers, 279 

,  grafting, 283 

,  seeds,  iiy bridizing, 288 

Protection  for  young  plants, 45 

Pruning  the  roots, 43 

■ ,  summer, C3,  75 

at  time  of  planting, 43 


at  end  of  first  year,. 

,  fall, 

.    See  Training. 


Q. 


Quesnel,  plan  of,. 


.400 


B. 

Rack  for  stakes, v.. 418 

Racking  wines, 429 

Rank  growth  not  desirable, 50,  69 

Rebecca, 199 

Red  Spider, 392 

Renewal  system, 144 

Renewing  spurs, 308 

arms, 315 

upright  stocks, 317 

Replacing  spurs, 305 

Rentz, 215 

Reversed  horizontal  arms, 151,  414 

Right  angle,  how  to  make, 31 

Ringing  the  vine, 416 

Ripe,  when  grapes  are, 236 

Ripeness,  signs  of, 238 

,  rule  for, 240 

,  outward  signs  of, 241 

Rogers's  Hybrids, 204 

Root-pruning  and  transplanting,  .38-40,  43 

47 

Roots  must  not  get  dry, 41 

,  furnished  with  mouths, 41 


Roots,  how  to  cover, 43 

must  not  be  buried  in  manure,  41,  50 

Rose-bug, 386 

Rot, 383 

Rows,  direction  of, 29 

S. 

Safety  valves, 103,  326 

Sage, 215 

Salem, 222 

Saratoga, 218 

Scuppernong, 214 

Sediment  or  lees, 450 

Seedlings  should  be  tested, 216 

Seeds,  plants  from, 288 

Selandria  vitis, 394 

Shelter, 16 

,  its  object, J  17 

,  various  kinds, IS 

,  for  young  plants, 45 

,  Guyot's, 94 

,  Dr.  Grant's, 94 

,  for  ripening, 367 

Shortening  or  pruning  the  roots, 43 

Single  ej'es  or  bads  make  best  plants,  35 

,  how  to  plant, 41 

,  under  glass, ......  250 

,  in  hot  beds, 260 


,  in  the  open  air,. .  .275 

Soil,  various  kinds, 20 

,  best  for  the  grape, 20 

,  its  preparation, 21 

,  importance  of  depth, 28 

,  excessive  richness  objectionable,  28 

Souring, 450 

Sparkling  wines, 430,  461 

Sphinges, 392 

Spotted  beetle, 389 

Spring  planting, 50 

Spurs,  distance  between, 72 

,  formation  of, 79 

,  single  and  double, 79,  &4,  400 

,  replacing, 305 

,  renewing, 308 

,  opposite, 320 

Stables,  training  vines  on, 141 

Stakes,  training  on, 158 

—  for  vineyard, 329 

,  training  without, 413 

— ,  rack  for, 418 

Steel  blue  beetle, 390 

Stocks,  upright, 105 


482 


Ameeican  Gkape  CL'LTUEE. 


PAGE 

Stocks,  upright,  renewing, 317 

,  low, lis,  158 

Structure  of  native  grape  faulty, 247 

Subsoiling, 26 

Summer  pruning, 63,  75 

Sun  scald, 385 

Surface  water,  evils  of, 13,  355 

roots, 341 

Sweet  wines, 430 

System,  double  horizontal  arms, 60,  70 

,  double  horizontal  arms  in  two 

tiers, 80 

,  Guyot's  renewal  arms, 89 

,  Guyot  improved, 90 

, ,  in  two  tiers,  105 

,  upright  stock,  alternate  spurs,  105 

,  bow, 114 

i^ , ,  unproved  form, 110 

— ,  low  stock, lis,  158 

-— ,  Jura, 118 

,  Thomery, 121 

, ,  for  walls,.. 125,  400,  410 

, ,  for  garden 127 

, ,  for  trellis  and    ar- 

,  bors, 132,400,410 

,  Thomery,  for  dwellings,  .137,  400 

410 

,  Tlioraery,  for  stables,141,  400,  410 

— ,  renewal, 144 

,  oblique, 149 

, ,  of  Dr,  May, 151 

,  re  versed  horizontal  arms,  151,  415 

,  fan 153 

,  goblet  and  other  forms, 153 

,  Trouillet's, 155 

,  Hermitage, 156 

,  on  trees, 158 

,  on  stakes,.... 158 

,  opposite  arms, 318 

,  opposite  spurs, 320 

,  of  Quesnel, 400 

,  of  Charmeux, 410 

,  of  ground  training, 411 

..without  stakes, 413 

,  trees  and  trellis  combined,. . .  .413 

T. 

Taste  as  applied  to  fruits, 225 

Taylor  or  Bullitt 203 

Telegraph  or  Christine, 221 

Testing  Seedlings, 216 

Tettigonia  vitis, 301 


PAGE 

Thallon,  (lateral,). 57 

,  definition  of, 58 

Thomery  system, 121 

Thrips, 391 

Time  to  plant, 50 

to  buy, 51 

To  Kalon, 202 

Training,    56-153 

,  general  remarks, 56-59 

,  its  value, 59 

,  first  year, 60 

,  second  year, 66 

,  third  year, 73 

,  fourth  year, SO 

,  fifth  year, 85 

.    See  System. 

Transplanting  vines, 40 

Transplanting  and  root  pruning, SS-40 

Trellis, 329 

— ,  wire,  best, 334 

,  mode  of  fastening  wire, 336 

,  wire  should  be  loosened  in  win- 
ter,  856 

,  vines  on, 131, 132 

Trenching, 22 

Trench  plowing 24 

Trees  for  shelter, IS 

must  not  be  close  to  vines, 18 

,  training  on, 153,  413 

Trouillet's  system, 155 

Tying  must  be  loose, 82,  324,  361 

u. 

Underhill's  Seedling, 215 

Union  Village, 198 

Upright  stock,  alternate  spurs, 105 

,    must     be     gradually 

formed, 107 

Upright  stock,  renewing, 817 

V. 

Varieties,  description  of, 159  224 

,  comparison  of, 168,187 

Vine,  parts  of, 59,  60 

as  a  gross  feeder, 27 

,  ringing  the, 416 

chafer, 390 

hopper,  (thrips,) 391 

Vines,  treatment  of  weak, 63 

,  best  age  to  purchase, 37 

should  not  grow  on  the  ground,  61 


Index. 


483 


Vines  on  trellis, »  .131, 132 

on  walls  and  arbors, 134 

on  dwellings, 130 

on  stables,  (see  System,) Ill 

from  eyes,  how  to  plant, 84 

from  cuttings,  how  to  plant, ...  40 

from  layers,  how  to  plant, 4" 

.     See  Plants. 

Vineyard,  laying  out, 29 

,  how  to  form  the  rows, 31 

,  distances  to  plant, 32,  822 

,  planting  the, 84 

Vital  force, 63,  70 

,  should  not  be  checked, ...  75 

w. 

Walls  and  arbors,  (see  System,) 134 

Walter, 21S 

Water,  evils  of  surface, 18 

,  influence  of, H 

Weed,  time  to, 34S 

Wilmington, 213 

Wines,  American, 6 

Wine  making,.   420 

and  bread  making, 421 

,  its  simplicity, 422 

■ — ,  good  grapes  necessary 

for 42-2 

,  implements  used  in, 423 

,  cleanliness  indispensa- 
ble,  428 

,  cellar 424 

,  casks, 425 

,  bottles, 426 

.  color, how  obtained, ...426 


PAGE 

Wine  making,  kinds  of  wine, 480 

,  process  of, 481 

,  fermentation, 431-43(> 


-,  cuvage, . 


.48S 


-,  skins  of  "  foxy  "  grapes,43S 

,  how  Catawba  wine  is 

made 439 

,  domestic, 443 

,  Pasteur's  experiraents,444 

451 

,  summary  of  processes,445 

-448 

,  bottling, 44S 

,  wasting, 449 

,  use  of  husks, 449 

,  sediment  or  lees, 450 

,  cUangPs  or  diseases,..  .450 

,   adulterations,    Galliz- 

ing,  etc., 453 

, ,  cbampagne, 461 

, ,    apparatus 

used,. . ..465 
, ,     adultera- 
tions, etc.465 
Winter,  how  to  keep  plants  during,  52-55 

covering, 65,  346,  352 

management, 351 

killing, 355 

Wire  trellis,  best, 834 

Wood,  largest  not  best, 826 

Wright's  Isabella, 213 


Y. 


Yeddo, 215 

,  cl.irifying, 427  i  Young  America, 221 

■,  crushing, 42S  York  Madeira, 200 

■,  racking, 429 '  Young  plants,  protection  for, 45 


THE    END. 


